Adopting this terminology is perceived as a means to foster an understanding of design beyond its traditional aesthetically rooted, artifact creation-based considerations in France, without undermining the perception of design as a creative, conceptive and innovation-driven practice.
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They exist to establish and document a theoretical framework for effectively synthesizing, modeling and adapting the skills, bases of knowledge and ethical values necessary for an individual to successfully chart and operate a career path in a given professional activity. In accordance with meeting this goal, they are also used to establish the baseline skills, bases of knowledge and ethical values that guide vocational education curricula throughout the country. Additionally, these types of documents should also depict and influence the theoretical and practical teachings necessary to prepare a student to enter a given professional discipline while neither mandating the contents of the courses that comprise its curriculum nor the teaching strategies and tactics that should be adopted to ensure their effective delivery.
Finally, these types of documents also fix the national testing standards that must be followed during the evaluation of students. This is often expressed in these words: It does not claim to match reality or truth. It produces knowledge by the comparisons that may be done.
The utilization of instruments like these bolsters the idea among this type of a group that its members must refer and conform to a certain set of characteristics, instructions, and representations to attain and sustain belonging. This paradox indicates a possible shift from thinking about method in and around design as an objective and logical tool, to that of method as a semantic marker to reiterate the specificity of design as a discipline and a practice. This occurred in every design program, from industrial design to graphic design, and affected undergraduate through postgraduate curricula.
This search for a harmony across the sub-disciplines of design was imbued with a will to fix common educational goals and methods, and to share common terminology and set equivalent testing contexts. This helped us outline a fundamental methodological approach that seems to guide the formulation and operation of the design project as it is currently taught at the undergraduate level across many French design curricula.
As we will discuss it, this vague terminology keeps circulating among the majority of the French educational community, which contributes to misunderstandings and uncertainty about what is supposed to constitute a proper method for engaging in the process of design. In order to observe the possible effect of these narratives of design practice i. In the following sections, we present the results of the observations mentioned at the beginning of Part 1 of this paper Elements for an investigation of the French model for design education.
These observations were conducted during two workshops meant to introduce postgraduate design students to project-grounded and practice-led research. As these workshops were intended to investigate how the context of a given design project professional practice or practice-based research could possibly rearrange or otherwise affect design methods, it seemed appropriate to attempt to identify how the students perceived, described and tested these methods.
What follows is our analysis of the results of a series of semi-structured group interviews with the students during the first workshop, as well as the surveys we distributed anonymously to the students during the second workshop. The first array of interviews we conducted followed the interrogations initiated during the workshop and presented above: The interviews were conducted at the end of the workshop, immediately after their last team presentation. We began our interactions with them by looking for distinctions between their personal approaches to designing.
In light of this, we asked them to:. Based on our interpretations of these observations, we propose the following interpretation: Following this method through to the realization of specific objects led to a coherent narrative that could be validated by the teachers and understood by the other students. This narrative becomes the ideal of a design practice, where design products are the result of a rational process, from the analysis of a context and user to the proposition of a solution.
During this workshop, the design teacher proposed that her students figure out how practice-oriented tools could possibly be shifted to research-oriented tools to guide design decision-making. Despite this, the supervising teacher informed her colleagues who chose to participate in and contribute data to our study of her actual educational purpose: After several reexaminations and reconsiderations of our research method and of the data we collected, we dismissed parts of the results.
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Even accounting for this, the qualitative part of the survey has provided more reliable data, as it directly called for descriptive accounts of their practices and views, with complete freedom in the choices of words to express them. Students were asked an open question about their engagement with a particular design method. They were first asked to 1 describe the different steps of this design method and its practice. They were then asked 2 if this method was subject to variation, 3 if they were taught this method, 4 if knowledge of it was widely shared among their classmates and, last, 5 if they thought it was relevant in terms of being able to operationalize it in professional design practice.
Many students described engaging in a similar method using the same official terminology described earlier in this paper: However, while using this very same generic terminology, the way they described engaging in their step-by-step method often revealed a rather distinctive understanding of these common terms. While it seems quite obvious that any student would develop—as they are so often asked to—a personal approach and their own tools, what is described here is beyond these considerations: This circulating institutional lingo actually helps fuel the inclusion of the educational community in the wider design community: In France, reaching a consensus on what design is and what it means to design is difficult, as it is not an inherent part of our vocabulary, and as it defies basic, mainstream understanding among cross sections of French society: In fact, the progressive shift from applied arts toward design education in France is in itself politically and ideologically motivated, promoting a specific understanding of the role of design in our society, of its motivations, whether a consensus about these role and motivations is reached, or not.
In the pursuit of this investigation, as in our common experience within the extended design community, we observed that while the agents of design are often unwilling to partake in the debate of the definition of design, they generally associate the term with a great diversity of conception and ideological discourses.
Meanwhile, design methodology seems to coincide with an attempt to articulate design practice to a set of academic methods and systems. It seems meaningful to point out here that the establishment of the Design Research Society was built upon ideas that emerged during the first Conference on Design Methods held in London in I would say forget it, forget the whole thing Not a field of design activities seemed spared, even when admittedly framed by academic requirements, as suggested by Nicolas Nova:. To put it roughly: Are we really discussing disciplinary tools and processes in order to question them, implement them, develop them, and improve them?
Or are we trying to establish a common culture based upon a common set of semantic markers, even if their meaning remains imprecise and imprecisely shared, in order to perform and legitimate the existence of our discipline? After focusing on "misbehaved" practices of architecture and urbanism, and specifically in examining the conditions that surround the production of the contemporary public space and possibilities of life within urbanized environments, he is now pursuing research to identify minoritarian design practices.
He was part of the curatorial team of the Biennale Internationale Design His research focuses on open-design, and the status of the artifacts it creates, in contrast to common industrial design artifacts. His hypotheses are that open-design suggests a specific aesthetic and thus requires a different attitude toward design process. Grey literature refers to materials and research produced by organizations outside of the traditional commercial or academic publishing and distribution channels, such as report literature, government publications, policy documents, etc.
These materials often vary in quality, and often are not peer-reviewed, but are protected by intellectual property rights, and are often collected by libraries and other types of institutional repositories. The referring teacher invited a design research PhD. Graphic design, fashion design, industrial design and environmental design.
Likewise, we have decided to stick to their original tone to render this sometimes unclear and confusing institutional lingo. In order to do so, we have translated them as literally as possible, as long as the meaning would remain correct: We also decided to provide our readers with the original texts, which have been placed in notes. The technological curricula, which led to much of the focus on vocational studies at the undergraduate level, begins in high school and includes diverse academic sectors such as: In part, she bases her hypothesis on the success of countries adopting such politics, notably through design education.
These questions, while directive, were only meant to suggest the themes of the discsion. For the purpose of our research, we could not disclose the subject of our research to our contributors completely. However, we made sure that we were as clear as possible about how we intended to use the data we collected, and we took every precaution we could to ensure the anonymity of their responses.
How to do things with words second edition. Oxford University Press, A corollary of biopolitics is to consider how that power extends to the sphere of natural life. If power is the agent for the management and governance of natural life, with the aim of maximizing production and economic growth, then the connection between biopolitics and capitalism emerges as implicit, as do the links with the capitalist ventures of colonialism and imperialism.
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Capitalism is a system which is contingent on the domination of human and natural life. Just as human populations have been controlled and regulated through measures such as education, healthcare, and prisons, natural life has also become the target of an international network of competition seeking to exert a regulatory governing force with which to control these valuable resources, in order to generate maximum profit.
A biopolitical ecocritical reading reveals the fundamental connections between the networks of power which link global governance and the control of natural life. In its rethinking of the economic and social conditions of production and consumption, and their wider environmental and psychological implications, the dynamics of biopolitical ecocriticism are played out in the Manifeste.
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Firstly, the critique of continuing imperialist modes of social and environmental dominance draws attention to the perilous issue of food security and the archaic, precarious, and inadequate food production culture: In an important parallel development, Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert has demonstrated why contemporary concerns regarding food security in the Caribbean can be better understood with reference to studies of colonial literature. Food security is a contentious issue across the Caribbean, as islands generate little of their own produce, relying largely on imports. In her highly innovative study of food in French Caribbean culture, Loichot observes that since departmentalization, which came into effect on 1 January , the economic situation in the French Caribbean can be considered to be one of satiation: The experience of satiety, which has replaced hunger in contemporary Martinique, leads to a similarly overwhelming dependence.
On an island where French subsidies have eradicated hunger, where a third of the population is unemployed and receives state funding, satiety, like hunger, creates a form of ideological dependence, which discourages desires and actions toward political independence. Production patterns have shifted rapidly in the post-war period, moving to an increasingly heavy reliance on imports, and the manifesto attempts to counter the ideological dependence engendered by this shift.
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In , eleven sugar factories were recorded in Martinique, whereas two decades later, only one remained open, while the number of distilleries had fallen from thirty-one to twenty-one; in Guadeloupe, banana production halved in the s. The arguments presented in the manifesto evoke the shift in production patterns, and in the corresponding circuits of global power, identified by the post-Marxist philosophers Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri in their seminal publication Empire although the Manifeste does not directly quote their work.
Throughout the Manifeste a critique of liberalism in its current form emerges. The manifesto pleads for a more global appraisal of an economic monolith that leaves no place for freedom of choice and the exercise of individual morality.
Le sens de la vie est multiple, ouvert, complexe, parce que clignotant, incertain, relative, fragile. It is to these reflections on the art of living that the authors of the Manifeste gesture as they comment: The authors turn to Morin to shore up their own claims that Antillean society must change its trajectory, turning away from a capitalist, individualistic model and moving — indeed, returning — to a society based on shared communal values and goals.
This represents another confluence with the thought expressed in the Manifeste: The essay was written in , just months before the global financial crash of , which it appears to predict and which Gorz did not live to see. Soleil de la conscience Paris: The Manifeste can certainly be viewed as complicit in this same aestheticizing drive.
In their bid for self-sufficiency, the authors recommend rejecting France in order to trade principally with the Caribbean and America: New trading arrangements and economic freedom can, the authors imply, lead to greater ideological freedom. The interlinking of economics and ideology has shaped Caribbean society from the slave plantation to its present day, and Katherine E.
The very first instance noted by Browne of alternative economies is the historical example of the small garden plots found on the margins of a plantation, which were given to slaves so that they could cultivate their own food. In encouraging an alternative economy, the authors simultaneously encourage Martiniquans to find alternative, more ecologically friendly ways of living, which sidestep the hold of both French domination and multi-national capitalism, and which may also challenge the excessive consumption of natural resources. Yet any such production remains small-scale by its very definition and therefore unlikely to change the wider nature of French Caribbean production and consumption patterns and bring about any large-scale ideological shift.
Similarly, the suggestion in the manifesto that the reign of the car might end is nothing short of idealistic in Martinique, which has an extremely underdeveloped public transport system: The strikes were a direct reaction to a further petrol price hike; the suggestion that, by changing their habits the French Caribbean population can bring the SARA to its knees, is relevant in the context of the events of early , but once again emerges as idealistic and lacking in political substance given the long-established status of the company in the islands.
Yet despite these criticisms, another reading of this slippage between politics and poetics emerges. The authors of the Manifeste are writing in full awareness that their implicit message is a call to arms against the very political and administrative structures in which they live, work, and publish. Against the globalizing totality of late capitalism, it is a strategy of cultural resistance to offer up radical ideas as experiments in poetics: Viewed in this manner, the cultural-political slippage criticized by Bongie and Hallward can be interpreted as describing and promoting a twentieth-century act of marronage , at a planetary scale, where humans live in awareness of the potential for capitalism to enslave, and thus seek out a way of existing in the dominant system that nonetheless resists and runs counter to the values and logic of that dominant system.
This is put into practice at an individual level: Such acts of marronage must, like those of the maroons who acted under slavery, inhabit a double time and a double space: The debates and philosophical reflections on the significance of the strikes of do indeed point to the potential for change. Human beings, then, should be considered as connected parts of a wider ecological network — rather than as some kind of centre around which everything gravitates. This wider ecology cannot come into existence without a reconceptualization of the meaning of work.
Ecocriticism needs to take full account of the biopolitical turn if the true factors contributing to environmental damage are to be appraised.
Haïti, réinventer l'avenir
A reading of the Manifeste that is sensitive to both biopolitical and ecocritical concerns reveals the fundamental links between global governance and natural life. Rethinking the relationship between work, the land, and creativity, is an important factor in addressing and combating environmental crises in the Caribbean, and on a planetary scale. They argue that such a rethinking has the potential to lead to a re-evaluation of what Gorz describes as under-tapped human resources: For all its efforts to promote an alternative way of life in the French Caribbean, what is the enduring legacy of the Manifeste?
Most critics observe that the temporary optimism of the strikes has given way to disillusionment. This slight but dense intervention is one of the most concise expressions of an increasingly significant philosophical direction for French Caribbean culture, as these small islands, peripheries, position themselves as a potential counterbalance to the might of European and Westernized hegemonic structures. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
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Sign In or Create an Account. Close mobile search navigation Article navigation. Eyrolles, , pp. Writing between the Singular and the Specific Manchester: Manchester University Press, Liverpool University Press, , pp. One significant Martiniquan response to the crisis included female contributors, and this text and the wider gender issues it raises deserve further critical attention: Minuit, , cited in Manifeste , p. From Arawaks to Zombies London: Routledge, , p. Cambridge University Press, , p. Seuil, , pp.
Multilingual Contexts, Translational Texts , ed. Routledge, , pp. Landmarks in Literary Ecology , ed. University of Georgia Press, , pp. Landmarks in Literary Ecology , pp.