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Sie hatte offenbar damals beschlossen, Analytikerin zu werden, vielleicht auch um sich in ihrer Situation als Emigrantin Hilfe zu holen. Es war damals sehr schwer Patienten zu finden, die Honorare waren gering. Sie erlebte, wie die Kinder den ganzen Tag am Stuhl festgebunden waren und sich gegenseitig die Haare ausrissen. Schockiert durch diese Erfahrungen begann sie nach und nach mit Kinderbehandlungen. Innerhalb ihrer Ausbildungsgruppe in Manchester waren die Beziehungen sehr eng und verwickelt.
Balints Frau war gestorben und heiratete er eine Ausbildungskandidatin. Aber vielleicht war ja gerade diese Arbeit die Rettung aus Angst und Verzweiflung. Balint als ihr Analytiker durfte jetzt nicht mehr gleichzeitig ihr Supervisor sein. Sie ging zu Strachey und mit ihrem zweiten Fall zu Melanie Klein. Auch in London arbeitete Esther Bick wieder an einer Kinderklinik, was sie sehr liebte. Gleichzeitig begann sie mit der Kindertherapieausbildung.
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Kurz davor hatte sie ihre analytische Ausbildung am British Institute abgeschlossen und ihre erste Arbeit auf dem Gebiet der Psychoanalyse vorgelegt. Ihr erster Kinderfall wurde von Klein supervidiert, der zweite von Paula Heimann und hatte Esther Bick ihre Ausbildung abgeschlossen.
Jetzt wollte sie ihre Analyse bei Melanie Klein fortsetzen. Balint schien dem keinen Widerstand entgegengesetzt zu haben. Dieses eigene Denken zeigte sich erstmalig bei ihrem Vortrag im Juni , mit dem sie die Mitgliedschaft in der Britischen Psychoanalytischen Gesellschaft erwarb. Da sie weder weiter an ihm kleben noch ihn hinunterschlucken konnte geriet sie in eine Art Totenstarre agony. Ihre Assoziationen zu diesem Kleben waren: Sie beschreiben etwas Neues, einen Zustand, der sich vor dem befindet, den Melanie Klein mit ihren Begriffen von Projektion und Introjektion vor Augen hat..
Zuerst versuchte ich, das Problem zu mildern, indem ich die Seminarteilnehmer dazu ermunterte, dem Baby mehr Aufmerksamkeit zu widmen und weniger der Mutter.. Dies half jedoch nicht. Dies ist nur eine kleine Kostprobe, die Ihnen Lust machen soll, selbst weiter zu lesen. Das hing wohl mit ihrem Wesen und ihrer starken kleinianischen Ausrichtung zusammen. Martha Harris, ihre Nachfolgerin, schreibt in ihrem Nachruf , aus dem ich schon zitiert habe: Die Psychoanalyse und Israel. Ihre Schriften zur Kinderanalyse und zur Infant Observation waren sehr fruchtbar und sind es bis heute geblieben.
Aber es ist eher ihre Art zu Lehren als zu schreiben, die bei allen, die mit ihr gearbeitet haben, in Erinnerung bleiben werden. Dear colleagues, dear guests, Our institute has now been in existence for 10 years. It came into being as a result of the dedicated efforts of the colleagues from the former GDR, who after German reunification began training in line with the London Tavistock model — a unique development in Germany.
In the years that followed, they worked intensively and with great enthusiasm with former students from the Tavistock, especially with Suzanne Maiello from Rome and Ross Lazar from Munich who we would like to thank warmly at this point. The Tavistock model was introduced in under the directorship of John Bowlby. It's purpose was to train colleagues from different disciplines in child and youth psychotherapy. The Infant observation established by Ester Bick became one of the mainstays of the training.
Alongside its emphasis on high quality psychoanalysis, social aspects were also an important consideration of this training model. On the basis that children ought to be treated irrespective of their social background, a link was forged, in those early days, to the NHS. Perhaps this aspect was also one of the contributing factors for the colleagues choosing this particular training — after all, with German reunification, they themselves had been thrown into immense social upheaval.
And thus the Haus der Demokratie, the House of Democracy, is not a coincidental, but rather a very apt location for our celebration. This is where those critical of the GDR regime assembled together before the wall came down. In naming our institute after Esther Bick, the pioneering founder of infant observation, we wish to honour a woman who, as a Polish Jew, suffered the fate of emigration and the loss of her family who were murdered in the Holocaust. Her name is inseparable with this very particular kind of infant observation while her person it sometime seems has disappeared behind this.
Their perspective is thus no cold research instrument. Esther Blick was gifted with a great intuition for very early emotional states. We have the fortune and the honour to welcome here a former pupil of Esther Bick. Judith Elkan can speak to us about Esther Bick from her own experience and we are very thankful that she has taken on the stress of the journey in order to speak to us here today. In the 50s Judith left Israel for London to train at the Tavistock clinic.
The ingenious thing about infant observation is the simple and clear setting combining mother and father containing elements: Thus little by little the essence of a completely individual relationship between this baby and this mother can be experienced. When we consider that Esther Bick established this setting in London in , thus directly after the end of the war, we can only marvel. Only ten years earlier she herself had fled from Vienna and the Nazis, and she still did not know for certain what fate her relatives had met under German occupation. Esther Bick was not a woman who spoke publicly or even wrote about her private life.
She had been married for a short time in Vienna and seems to have separated from her husband sometime along the escape route to London via Switzerland — no details are known. She had a few good friends with whom she maintained contact until her death. She lived and worked in a house in Hampstead directly under the roof. Ross Lazar remembered how everyone who climbed the many stairs to visit her had to bring apple strudel with them — probably in memory of her Vienna days. She must have had an impressive ability to empathise with the inner world of babies and children.
At the same time she was strict and demanding with herself and others. She is said to have often been very dissatisfied with the words which she tried to use to describe what she perceived and felt. She must have truly suffered under the inadequacy of these words, and that is probably one of the main reasons why she published so little.
Publikationen
A lot of people thought this very regretful and tried to encourage her. Donald Meltzer and Martha Harris, especially, supported her publishing efforts, and sometimes they searched together for appropriate formulations. He complained that she could not conceptualize. Sometimes when speaking, she completely despaired over this difficulty.
The loss of her Polish native tongue and the frequent change in languages probably did not help here. In Vienna she spoke German and later only English. Her English is said to have been excellent, but I imagine that particularly in describing early emotions, it would have been much easier for her to have used her mother tongue, Polish. Former pupils recount having been afraid to present their material to her. For her there were good candidates and bad candidates, and if one belonged to the bad lot, one did not have it easy.
She is said to have often left little room for differing opinions and interpretations. At the same time Meltzer describes her as an inspiring teacher and her thought as intuitive and poetical. She seems to have struggled to unite these contradictions within herself: In this, her love of psychoanalysis, thus also of thinking, would certainly have helped her to combine creativity with defense. After her death she inherited her analyst couch. Bion borrowed the concept from the English poet John Keats.
This capacity is of great significance in infant observation, in the analytical attitude, and in what Bion named the motherly reverie. It imposes on the child analyst a greater dependence on his unconscious to provide him with clues to the meaning of the child's play and non-verbal communications. With the infant observation Esther Bick — also at this time — created a space in which it could be thought about in a perceiving and feeling mode. Thus both in their own way continued the work of Melanie Klein.
She was born on 4 July in the town of Przemysl in Polish Galicia as the first child of Jewish parents and she died on 20 July , at just over 81 years, in London. Three publications on Esther Bick were especially helpful for this talk: For the information on her early years in Poland I owe thanks to the work of the Krakauer colleague Andrzej Gardziel from Ross Lazar works closely with this group and I am grateful to him for a copy of this dissertation, which I have brought you to look at. You will find this and all other sources for my talk along with a list of the few publications by Esther Bick in the literature list.
Gardziel describes the town of Przemysls in Galicia, which lay close to the Russian border and belonged to Austria-Hungary from until Poland regained its independence after the First World War. For hundreds of years people of different religions and cultures lived there together. The region prospered and the population grew. Due to its closeness to the Russian border, during the First World War Przemysl was of strategic importance, and in and it was transitionally occupied by the Russians. Later, on 15 September it was occupied by the Germans, but by then Esther Bick was already in London.
She is believed to have left Poland in , having passed her Abitur A levels. Original text She is reported to have told Joan Symington that already during her school days she had had to leave home for a long period, apparently going to Prague to help out an aunt with her baby over a space of three years. It must have been a difficult childhood.
Her very young parents had financial problems. Her father who worked in a bank lost his job; the family lived in tenement housing for financially needy Jews. Esther Bick as the oldest daughter presumably had a lot of duties, especially in the upbringing of the younger siblings. Her own development and desires would certainly have often taken a back seat. This repeated itself later as she financed her training by looking after children. Instead of being allowed to be a child herself, she took care of other children — and this she evidently did well and with great enjoyment.
A further irruption in her life was the early death of her father from tuberculosis. At the time Esther Bick was only 22 years old. Esther Bick had already learned Hebrew and wanted so much to go to Palestine, but she had to give this plan up. Instead she did a short apprenticeship as a Kindergarten teacher. Then At 24 years of age she passed her Abitur exams and decided to go to Vienna, because it was not possible for her as a Jew to study in Poland. Her desire to go to study with Piaget in Switzerland also remained unfulfilled, as Switzerland at the time did not take foreign students.
She complained that stop watches were used and the social responses of the children to one another were counted, whereas she wanted to observe something that could not be quantified. A short quotation should show how we can already recognize the ideas which were later to permeate her own method of infant observation. The child has become an understanding observer. Thus being forced to leave Vienna with the occupation of Austria by the Nazis in must have been all the more traumatic.
Newly married she fled via Switzerland to England. She had apparently by then decided to become an analyst, perhaps also to get help for herself in her emigrant situation. In London her attempt to find a place in analysis failed and so in December she came to the training group in Manchester which Balin was in the process of setting up.
It was very difficult at the time to find patients. The wages were low. The first training group began in March and was understood as a subgroup of the London institute; the candidates had to go to London for the interviews and a lot of supervisions also took place there. Esther Bick began her training analysis in with Balint for a fee of a few shillings, supporting herself by working as a nanny.
The situation in the northern English nurseries appalled Esther Bick. Shocked by these experiences, she gradually began to work treating children. Seeking help with this difficult task, she discovered the writings of Melanie Klein, which tallied with her own convictions and deeply impressed her. It seems that she had finally found something which she had always sought — for the children she wished to treat, but also for the child within herself.
It must have been a very special, exciting time — in the middle of the war and in the midst of the high phase of the so-called Controversial Discussions. Introduced by Balint, in March and April she took part in two of these meetings. Susan Isaacs paper on the unconscious phantasy was discussed. It all left a deep impression on Esther Bick and she was shocked at the tone of the meeting and the way they interacted with one another. Within her own training group in Manchester the relationships were very close and involved. Balint was simultaneously training analyst, supervisor and tutor for the candidates, which did not seem to have disturbed him, since it was similar to the Hungarian Society model.
The seminars took place in turns in the living quarters of the tutors and candidates. The treatments too were carried out in the living quarters. We do not know how this event affected Bick; it could be that it contributed to her subsequent critical judgment of Balint. The situation of the emigrants was further aggravated by the uncertainty of the fate of their relatives.
The news of their deaths was slow in reaching England — death by suicide or murdered in the concentration camps. Bick only learned in that apart from her niece who had emigrated to Israel, her whole family, including her parents and siblings, had died in the concentration camps. It must have been a horrific time for the analysts and their candidates and patients. There was so much uncertainty and so many losses that today we can hardly imagine how in this atmosphere it was possible to do analysis. But perhaps this very work provided a sanctuary from fear and despair.
In July Esther Bick continued her training in London. The Manchester group was disbanded. She went to Stachey and with her second case to Melanie Klein. In London Esther Bick also began working again at a child guidance clinic, which she really loved. Later she recalled a boy who came with his grandmother, which reminded her of her own loving grandmother. When Bowlby initially tried to recruit her for the Tavistock clinic in , she was not at all enthusiastic. At the same time she began training in child therapy. In this she was totally in line with the Zeitgeist of the post-war Labour Party, who were planning the establishment of the National Health Service.
Finally in she took on a senior position in the newly established child psychotherapy training at the Tavistock. Shorty before this, she had completed her analytic training at the British Institute and delivered her first psychoanalytic paper. She became a passionate follower of her work. Her first child case was supervised by Klein, the second by Paula Heimann, and in Esther Bick completed her training. Now she wanted to continue her analysis with Melanie Klein.
Balint seems not to have put up any opposition. Grosskurth in her biography about Melanie Klein says the following: Original English version supplied by the analyst. She never spoke about it, on the other hand she looked back on her nine year analysis with Balint very critically. There is an anecdote which she recounted to Hanna Segal. She told her that on occasion she could not offer free associations, reflecting perhaps inner conflicts which she could not express.
Perhaps she adopted something of his independent thinking and his flexibility without idealizing him. And this allowed her, despite her great loyalty to Melanie Klein, to develop her own very individual concepts. This independent thinking is first apparent in the lecture in June with which she obtained membership of the British Psychoanalytic Society. In it she describes the analysis of a 30 year old married woman with suicidal impulses and severe phobic states, including claustrophobia and vaginism.
This woman vacillated between a desperate clinging to her objects for her own survival and a great anxiety over the well-being of these objects given her own need for omnipotent control. During the Christmas break of there was an emergency session due to severe panic attacks. Esther Bick wrote on this: It was so frightening because she was sure she was not dreaming.
She saw herself very small, clinging to her husband with her mouth and body. She felt she must get down or she would damage him irreparably, but knew that if she got down she would go mad and die. She could neither go on clinging nor get down and felt paralysed in agony. I interpreted that through making her aware in the analysis that the leash with which she clung to me and her husband was her vampire mouth, she felt that I had made her more ill than before she came to me.
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She describes something new, a state which is prior to that which Melanie Klein has in mind with her concepts of projection and introjection. In order to project and introject there must be a rudimentary idea of an inner and outer space which can be filled or emptied and of a border between the two. An interesting discovery I made during my work on this lecture was that far from exclusively devoting herself to the inner condition of the baby, Esther Bick was also — originally almost unintentionally — concerned with the condition of the mother.
She describes this in her work on infant observation: While we have known for some time that these trends are almost universal, I was not prepared for the intensity with which they impinged on the observer. Their attitude was highly critical and emotional. At first I tried to mitigate the problem by encouraging them to give more attention to the baby and less to the mother.
This did not help. I realized it was necessary to give more consideration to this factor — the depression in the mother and its impact on the observer as well as on the baby and other members of the family. The mother can be clearly seen to be experiencing emotional detachment from the baby, helplessness in understanding and meeting its needs, relying on the baby to make use of her breasts, hands, voice, as part objects.
Here we can imagine an abundance of clinical phenomena — ranging from ADS syndrome to the obsessive-compulsive disorders. Surviving space would then come to mean surviving the experience of being hurtled through space —with the help of a new survival space, which consists in the physical and mental presence of the mother.
In one of her publications Esther Bick quotes from the protocol of a very sensitive observer: Mother then laid him in her lap again so that his feet were pointing at her stomach. When put down his hands and legs flew out, almost like an astronaut in a gravityless zone. She responded by talking gently to him again and bringing both his hands down to his stomach with her hands. She then laid him on the changing pad saying that he did not usually like to be changed.
It also contains all of her publications apart from the first paper on the young woman who I described earlier. You will also find reports by her students on the training years with her and on the various fields of application of her ideas, amongst others in the pedagogic field and in the understanding of groups. It will be evident how closely her theoretical thought is linked with what she experienced during the infant observations and how she attempted to find concepts which could link the physical and the emotional.
This of course Freud had already done. As a neurologist he was convinced of the entrenchment of the psyche in the body and also that this connection would be revealed as research progressed. This simultaneously nurturing and sealing relation can then be introjected and builds the body-mind core of all relation phantasies. To conclude I would like once more to return to her life journey. There, in a change took place, when Bowlby decided not to renew her position as director of child therapy training.
This was probably connected with her personality and her strong Kleinian orientation. Martha Harris, her successor, wrote in her obituary in , from which I have already quoted: Nusia Bick [as she was called by her friends] was never at any period of her life a compromiser and the course came under fire for its narrow Kleinian orientation.
When in she was told by Dr Bowlby that he would no longer be asking her to undertake responsibility for another intake of students, she decided to leave the clinic and to concentrate upon her analytic work and on her teaching at the Institute of Psychoanalysis. Nevertheless she continued to give extra-mural and private seminars to child psychotherapists for the next twenty years.
During that time she also did a great deal of teaching abroad in Spain, in Italy, also in South America, Israel and Switzerland. Analysts and candidates came to her for supervision from these countries and also from France, the Commonwealth and the United States.
She had high hopes of both, and to both she applied equally high standards which were impossible to realize, and so inevitably she was disappointed by the imperfections in them. Those exacting standards she applied also to herself and her writing, which was seldom allowed to reach the printed page. Her papers on child analysis and on infant observation were seminal and remain so. But it is as a teacher rather than as a writer that she will be remembered by many of us who worked with her. Her appreciation of material presented to her, her capacity to seize upon salient points and use then to bring alive the personality of the child or person described, had a poetic quality displayed only by those who love life intensely.
She had a vision of how lives might be improved by psychoanalysis, a burning desire to communicate this in her teaching, and little tolerance of attitudes which stood in the way of this. Her uncompromising and sometimes narrow vision gained her enemies and critics, but its integrity and illuminating force won from many others, especially from young people who were eager to learn, a devotion and admiration which few people are able to inspire. Lest this brief note about her life and complicated personality make her sound too austere, it should be said that she had a great sense of fun and gaiety, and a store of Jewish jokes.
Gordon hat kein tertium comparationis. Darin besteht sein Dilemma. Angeblich gab es im Deutschland der er und er Jahre keine andere Alternative zu Heideggers Philosophie als eben diesen idealistischen Typus Cassirer. Aber dies ist weder historisch-faktisch noch philosophisch-systematisch gesehen wahr. Es geht mir um dritte philosophische Positionen, die in der Disputation zwischen Cassirer und Heidegger selbst im Zentrum standen.
Darin besteht das Interessante an dieser Disputation: Beide, sowohl Cassirer als auch Heidegger, wollen nicht als Philosophische Anthropologen gelten. Sie verschweigen beide ihre impliziten Anthropologien in Davos, das Dasein der Endlichkeit und die Unendlichkeit der symbolischen Formen, indem sie sie als Philosophien ausgeben. Es ging um seine Nachfolge und sein Erbe. Alle beeilten sich, sie anzutreten. Heidegger widmete Scheler sein Kant-Buch Cassirers Stichworte gaben Schelers Thema richtig wieder: Wie kommt es zur Vergeistigung des Lebens und zur Verlebendigung des Geistes?
Darin bestand nicht nur die zentrale Frage der Philosophischen Anthropologie, sondern auch der Lebensphilosophie Diltheys, deren Systematisierer Georg Misch war. Band der symbolischen Formen, finden sich die Spuren der Auseinandersetzung mit Plessner. Zu den historischen Fakten: Auflage als Monographie erschien. Hatte es beiden die Sprache verschlagen? Heidegger beginnt im Dasein, dem es in seinem Sein um das Sein selbst gehen soll, und Cassirer beginnt in den symbolischen Formen, die das menschliche Selbstbewusstsein historisch und systematisch als Kulturformen spezifizieren sollen.
Sie fragen nach dem Zusammenhang von Sein und Bewusstsein im Leben, das sowohl naturphilosophisch als auch geschichtsphilosophisch thematisiert wird. Seine Philosophie setzte historisch und systematisch mit den symbolischen Formen ein, die zweifellos eine Pluralisierung des transzendentalen Selbstbewusstseins bedeuteten.
Es fehlte ihnen aber ein Unterbau in der Geschichte der Natur und Gesellschaft. Cassirers Historisierung der Funktion des Apriori, d. In der Natur gibt es Lebensformen, deren Reproduktion an kein Bewusstsein gebunden ist. In Cassirers ehrlicher Selbstbescheidung auf eine Kulturphilosophie wirkte Plessners Naturphilosophie nach. Plessners horizontaler Vergleich enthielt eine Einladung an Cassirers Kulturphilosophie. Zudem anerkannte Cassirer das Problem einer Naturphilosophie, in der auch, aber auf andere Weise symbolisch vermittelt verfahren wurde, oder wie Kant gesagt hatte: Cassirer verstand durch Scheler die Aufgabe, die in dem Begriff des Lebens gestellt wird.
Liest man Heideggers Vorlesungen aus dem Wintersemester , so wird ihm klar, dass seine publizierten Kritiken an der Philosophischen Anthropologie nicht stimmen. Andere Primaten konnten auf praktische Weise auch intelligent sein, sowohl individuell als auch in Gruppen. Sie konnten ihre Umwelt im Vordergrund nicht von einer Welt im Hintergrund her exzentrieren.
Aber diese Schimpansen konnten nicht symbolisch neben diese zentrischen Korrelationen treten, um letztere selbst zum Gegenstand werden zu lassen. Es gab dann einen exzentrischen Weltrahmen, von dem her die Umwelten der Individuen und Gruppen transformiert werden konnten. Sie resultierte aus einer Sedimentation und Habitualisierung von Welt in Umwelt.
Dort kritisierte Plessner die dualistische Reduktion des Sozialen auf Gemeinschaft im Gegensatz zur Gesellschaft in rechten und linken Gemeinschaftsideologien. Sie hatten beide keine Philosophie der Natur und keine Philosophie der Gesellschaft. Translation - English Life-philosophical anthropology as the missing third. Gordon has no tertium comparationis. This is his dilemma. To the extent that I am acquainted with the Heideggerian debates in the USA and France, they both appear to suffer from the same deficit.
But this is not the case, either in a historical-factual or in a philosophical-systematic sense. There were third directions in German philosophy which could serve as the tertium comparationis. I am not speaking of the extended circle of the Frankfurter School Critical Theory, which Gordon only touches upon at the periphery. Of course Heidegger was not a racist, but rather a social anti-semite. See his correspondence with Elfriede. I am referring to third philosophical positions which took central stage in the actual dispute between Cassirer and Heidegger. The whole argument between them, before Davos, in Davos, and after Davos raged around the status of philosophical anthropology, positioned as it was between philosophy and anthropology.
Cassirer, as Gordon correctly notes, reproached Heidegger as in fact did Husserl in a similar vein with being merely an anthropologist of the Zeitgeist instead of a philosopher. Heidegger did everything to prevent his fundamental ontology appearing as philosophical anthropology. And that is what is interesting about this dispute: Neither of the protagonists, Cassirer nor Heidegger, wanted to be seen as a philosophical anthropologist.
They are both speaking of a missing third party, from whom they distance themselves. They both conceal their implicit anthropologies in Davos, the Dasein of finitude and the infinitude of symbolic forms, by presenting them as philosophies. If one thinks oneself back to that time more clearly and asks who the missing third party in Davos and in the pre- and post-war history of this dispute could be, the authors Georg Misch and Helmuth Plessner readily spring to mind — Max Scheler having died in Scheler, alongside Nikolai Hartmann and Cassirer, was undoubtedly one of the most impressive leading figures in the clash of the German philosophies.
Now it was a question of his succession and inheritance. Everyone rushed to make their claim. Heidegger dedicated his Kant book to Scheler. How do the spiritualization of life and the enlivening of the spirit come about? In their publications Cassirer and Heidegger remain silent on this third, i. On the historic facts: It was published as a monograph in the first edition in and the second in It is very peculiar that Cassirer and Heidegger refrained from giving any public response.
Were they both rendered speechless? Cassirer was seen as too idealistic and Heidegger as too pragmatic to justify the human situation in nature and historically. For Misch and Plessner, Cassirer and Heidegger perpetuated the old dualism of being and consciousness. Heidegger begins in the Dasein, whose being is to be concerned with Being itself, and Cassirer begins in the symbolic forms, which are supposed to historically and systematically specify the human self-consciousness as cultural forms.
Misch and Plessner contrapose these modifications with life forms in which finite and infinite dimensions are interlocked. They inquire into the relation between being and consciousness in life, examining the matter in the context of both natural philosophy and the philosophy of history. His philosophy began historically and systematically with the symbolic forms, which undoubtedly implicated a pluralisation of the transcendental consciousness.
Thus the one super-historical and transcendental consciousness Kant was now replaced by a diversity of symbolic forms — from myth, language and art, through religion to science, history and technology. The historical and systematic ordering of these symbolic forms was then open to discussion. But they were missing a substructure in the history of nature and society.
They enabled a collective mind, but they themselves were enabled phenomena a posteriori and not only enabling a priori. In nature there are forms of life whose reproduction is not bound to any consciousness. Plessner speaks of precentric and decentral forms of organization to describe the structure which makes these possible. In nature there are forms of life whose reproduction is essentially dependent on consciousness. Plessner calls the structure deriving from the organism which makes these possible a centric form and that deriving from the environment also a centric form, both of which must respond and adapt to each another.
It is only the excentric form of positioning which requires for its reproduction symbols as symbols. It criticizes as anthropology the dualism found in modern philosophy since Descartes, as this dualism cannot live up to the task posed in the modern conduct of life. In this sense we are concerned with the anthropological question of how in the midst of modern dualism integration within personal life is in fact possible.
Anthropology first becomes philosophical anthropology, thus philosophy, when it criticizes the over-hasty generalization of some intermediary findings of anthropology to mean the end of nature and the end of history. Thus, in task 2, philosophy criticises anthropology insofar as the latter had arrived at a conclusive definition of the essence of mankind, which claimed once and for all to have determined and assessed this species.
This offering was too little for Cassirer, but he conceived a succession of symbolic forms which extended from myth through language and the performing arts to the religion of the personality. Scheler, Plessner and Cassirer were in agreement against Heidegger and Ludwig Klage that the standard for modern life-forms must not fall below the level of the personality which had been developed in the monotheistic religions. Cassirer, through Scheler, understood the task set by the concept of life.
Scheler had expounded the spiritual affirmation of life in the ecstatic form of love, passion and the social senses of compassion and shame. Plessner remarks that Heidegger in Being and Time only recognizes life privatively i. The life process, for Plessner, interlocked finite dimensions in the material of the elements with infinite elements in the structures of its Possibility. Neither for Scheler nor for Plessner is philosophical anthropology a regional ontology and least of all is it a philosophy of the subject which is closest to itself.
Other primates can also be intelligent in a practical way, both individually and in groups. What their memory and self-consciousness were still missing were symbolic contrasts referring to a world going beyond their world like a frame. Their behaviour in this sense remains centric, as they produced physical and psychical correlations to the things in their environments according to experience and memory.
But these chimpanzees could not symbolically position themselves next to these centric correlations in order to transform the latter into an object. For this, the external symbolization of culture in the institutionalization of society was required. This socio-cultural Mitwelt allowed the differentiation between inner and outer world to be newly assessed.
There was then an excentric world frame through which the environments of the individuals and groups could be transformed. The excentred world frame could be neutralised in relation to the individual physis and psyche, i. From this deep boredom, philosophy, art and science became possible as new world revelations distanced from the environments of the human Dasein in every day life. For Plessner, the everyday life of the Dasein was not a world, but rather an artificially produced environment. It resulted from a sedimentation and habitualisation of the world into the environment.
Logically viewed, everyday life presupposed an extra-ordinary life in an excentric disclosure of the world. Insofar as the latter had led to the setting up of an artificial environment through technology, society and culture, all symbolic communications could be directly lived in this superficial environment, i. The inner world could only be differentiated from the outer world, without being circular, if this difference were determined from the standpoint of an interpersonal Mitwelt.
Heidegger had still not understood that he lacked a fundamental philosophy of nature and society. However, after the Metaphysics of winter he did allow for excentric world-disclosures in philosophy, art and science. In relation to philosophical anthropology, Cassirer and Heidegger shared two deficits. Neither of them had a philosophy of nature or a philosophy of society. They shared furthermore a third important deficit and this is where Georg Misch and his influence on Plessner comes in.
If the theory of knowledge was no longer to be grounded outside of life, but rather, from anew, from within it, then this had a negative consequence to begin with: Misch advocated the theory of the unfathomability of life and of humans concerning the conduct of their lives as a whole. Human beings cannot take on the role of god in epistemology, a role independent of any individual life. Thus, the ideal of a godlike knowledge of and beyond all life collapsed, unattainable for human beings. And thus history will continue into the future.
The principal of unfathomability replaces a material a priori Scheler or a formal a priori Heidegger in which there is still too much centrism. It has now risen more formidable than ever, and with the further aggravation, that it was unexpected. Irish disaffection, assuredly, is a familiar fact; and there have always been those among us who liked to explain it by a special taint or infirmity in the Irish character.
But Liberal Englishmen had always attributed it to the multitude of unredressed wrongs. England had for ages, from motives of different degrees of unworthiness, made her yoke heavy upon Ireland. According to a well known computation, the whole land of the island had been confiscated three times over. Part had been taken to enrich powerful Englishmen and their Irish adherents; part to form the endowment of a hostile hierarchy; the rest had been given away to English and Scotch colonists, who held, and were intended to hold it as a garrison against the Irish.
The manufactures of Ireland, except the linen manufacture, which was chiefly carried on by these colonists, were deliberately crushed for the avowed purpose of making more room for those of England. The vast majority of the native Irish, all who professed the Roman Catholic religion, were, in violation of the faith pledged to the Catholic army at Limerick, despoiled of all their political and most of their civil rights, and were left in existence only to plough or dig the ground, and pay rent to their task-masters.
A nation which treats its subjects in this fashion cannot well expect to be loved by them. It is not necessary to discuss the circumstances of extenuation which an advocate might more or less justly urge to excuse these iniquities to the English conscience. Whatever might be their value in our own eyes, in those of the Irish they had not, and could not have, any extenuating virtue. Short of actual depopulation and desolation, or the direct personal enslaving of the inhabitants, little was omitted which could give a people cause to execrate its conquerors.
But these just causes of disloyalty, it was at last thought, had been removed. The jealousy of Irish industry and enterprise has long ceased, and all inequality of commercial advantages between the two countries has been done away with. The civil rights of the Catholic population have been restored to them, and with one or two trifling exceptions their political disabilities have been taken off.
The prizes of professional and of political life, in Ireland, England, and every British dependency, have been thrown open, in law and in fact, to Catholic as well as Protestant Irish.