Many of the poets of the Cancioneiros wrote in all three kinds: There is life and poetical feeling as well as facility of technique in his poems. Pero Garcia de Burgos fl. He shows himself capable of deep feeling in his love songs, but speaks with two voices, descending to sad depths in his poems of invective. His contemporary, the segrel Pero da Ponte, is also an accomplished poet of love, in the even flow of his verse far more accomplished than Pero Garcia, and in his satirical poems wittier and, as a rule, more moderate. He placed his poetical gift at the service of kings to sing their praises for hire, and celebrated San Fernando's conquest of Seville in ; Seville, of which, he says, ' none can adequately tell the praises '.
To satire almost exclusively the powerful courtier of King Dinis' reign, Stevam Guarda, devoted his not inconsiderable talent, and the segrel Pedr' Amigo de Sevilha fl. Joan Garcia de Guilhade. D 2 52 I numerous cantigas de amigo. Martin Soarez first half 13th c , born at Riba de Lima, and considered the best trobador of his time by those who could not appreciate the charm of the indigenous poetry , wrote no cossante nor cantiga de amigo, and in his satirical poems displayed a contemptuous insolence — towards those whom he regarded as his inferiors in lineage or talent — which places him in no attractive light.
But if his poems lack the variety of those of King Dinis, which they almost rival in number, they are nevertheless marked not only by harmony but by many a touch of real life. Of most of the other singers we have far fewer poems. Joan de Aboim c. There is an engaging grace and spirit in the cantigas de amigo written in dancing rhythm by Fernan Rodriguez de Calheiros fl. Joan Lopez de Ulhoa, their contemporary. Neither of these, however, possessed the poetical genius and versatility of the priest of Santiago, Airas Nunez second half ' A large number of cantigas by the same hand would emphasize the monotony of the kind and provide an unwelcome mirror for contemporary bards.
Of Roy Queimado fl. He wrote apastorela in the manner of the trouveres, and combined it with some of the most exquisite specimens of the indigenous poetry. Another of his poems C. Great importance has been attached to another C. Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos has shown that it was written to commemorate a contemporary event, probably in The Cancioneiros contain poems by high and low, prince and, one would fain say, peasant, noble trobador and humble jogral, soldiers and civilians, priests and laymen, singers of Galicia, Portugal, and Spain, but more especially of Galicia and North Portugal.
As in the case of C. It tells of a girl forced against her will to enter a convent, and who says to her lover: Its author was the fidalgo ' See p. An incidental interest belongs to this poem of eighteen dodecasyllabic lines from the fact that in C. Rodrig' Eanez de Vasconcellos, one of the pre-Dionysian poets. But indeed no further proofs are needed to show that, even had King Dinis never existed, the contents of the early Portuguese Cancioneiros would have been remarkable for their variety and beauty. If he imitated Alfonso X in his love of literature, he showed him- self a far abler and firmer sovereign, being more like a rock than like the sea, to which the poet compared Alfonso.
Far- sighted in the conception of his plans and vigorous in their execution, the Rei Lavrador, whom Dante mentions, though not by name: Among his great and abiding services to his country was the foundation of the first Portuguese University in the year , and in the same spirit he ordered the translation of many notable books from the Spanish, Latin, and Arabic into Portuguese prose, including the celebrated works of the Learned King, so that it is truer of prose than of poetry to say that he inaugurated a golden age. But he also excelled as a poet, d'amor trobador.
It had no doubt been part of his education to write convention- ally in the Provengal manner, but his skill in versification, remarkable even in an age in which Portuguese poetry had attained exceptional proficiency in technique, would have ' He thus overlapped Dante's life by four years at either end. Craveiro, Compendia , cap. Diniz trouxe a idade de ouro a Portugal. It was owing to the personal encouragement of Dinis that the waning star of both Provencal and indigenous poetry continued to shine in Portugal for another half-century.
The grandson of Alfonso X was the last hope of the trobadores and jograes of the Peninsula. From Leon and Castille and Aragon they came to reap an aftermath of song and panos at his Court, and after his death remained silent or unpaid C. The poems of King Dinis are not only more numerous but far more various than those of any other trobador, with the exception of Alfonso X, and it may perhaps be doubted whether they are all the work of his own hand.
In poetry's old age he might well wish to collect speci- mens of various kinds for his Livro de Trovas. Among them are some colour- less cantigas de amor and others more individual in tone, pastorelas C. Amigo faW e desleal, and C. Ay flores, ay flores do verde pino C. Dos Pecados da Ohra, These include dar aos jograaees. Nunez de Learn translates joglar as truao Vede-la frol do pinho — Valha Deus, and the hailada-cossante C.
Mia madre velida, Voum' a la bailia Do amor. If the king wrote these cossantes he must be reckoned not only as a musical and skilful versifier but as a great poet. And certainly, at least, his graciosas e dulces palavras well earned him the reputation of being not only the best king but the best poet of his time in the Peninsula. No trace or ' Cronica del Rei D. This interesting passage is not included in those quoted in C. It does not imply that the poems were exclusively religious.
Can the book three or four fingers in height have been the Cane, da Ajuda millimetres from which a section of sacred poems may have been torn? If so the letters Rey Dd Denis C. At the Escorial he also examined an original manuscript of St. His concise definition of a bore: Of his illegitimate sons, besides D.
Pedro, Conde de Barcellos, long had a reputation as a poet almost equal to that of his father, owing to the association of his name with the Cancioneiro ; but of his ten poems six C. It was as a prose-writer and editor of the Livro de Linhagens that he worthily carried on the literary tradition of King Dinis.
The next two centuries redressed the balance in the favour of prose. The victory of Aljubarrota made it possible to carry on the national work begun by King Dinis — the preparation of Portugal's resources for a high destiny. In this constructive process literature was not forgotten, and indeed its deliberate encouragement, as though it were an industry or a pine-forest, may account for the fact that it consisted mainly of prose — chronicles, numerous translations from Latin, Spanish, and other languages, works of religious or practical import.
Adolpho Coelho, A Lingua Portugueza , p. King Dinis had encouraged translation into Portuguese, and among other works his grandfather King Alfonso the Learned's Cronica General was translated by his order. The only edition that we have, Historia Geral de Hespanha , is cut short in the reign of King Ramiro cap. The first '0' of the preface in the manuscript contains the king in purple robe and crown of gold, pen in hand, with a book before him. The style is primitive, often a succes- sion of short sentences beginning with ' And '.
Thus we have thirteenth- or fourteenth-century fragments of the rules of S. Bento, Fragmentos de uma versao antiga da regra de S. Bento, with its traces of a Latin original e. The translation is close ; the style foreshadows that of the Leal Conselheiro. The importance of these and other fragmentary versions of the Bible, in which there can rarely be a doubt as to the meaning of the words, is obvious.
Extracts from the Vida de Eufrosina and the Vida de Maria Egipcia, published in by Jules Cornu from the manuscripts formerly in the Monastery of Alcobaga, now in the Torre do Tombo, show that they were written in vigorous if primitive prose 14th c. A Lenda dos Santos Barlaam e Josaphat is perhaps a little later end of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century.
E persegujo as pias filhas de finees que Ihe aujd odio e o queria desherdar. E foy CO jaasson que adusse o velloso dourado da ylha de colcos. The Vida de Santo Aleixo also exists in two codices belonging to the middle and beginning of the fifteenth century, and Dr. Esteves Pereira, who pub- lished the latter, considers that the variants point to an earlier manuscript of the beginning of the fourteenth or end of the thirteenth century. To about the same period i4th-i5th c.
Tesouro da Trindade – Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
Both literature and philology are interested in the early fifteenth- century work printed by, Dr. Leite de Vasconcellos from the manuscript in, the Vienna HoJ- bibliothek: The earliest entry of the Cronica Breve do Archivo Nacional is dated , and both it and the Cronicas Breves e memorias avulsas de Santa Cruz de Coimbra are laconic annals of the first kings of Portugal, a few lines covering a whole reign.
The Livro da Noa de Santa Cruz de Coimbra is an extract from the Livro das Heras of the same convent, and is, as the latter title indicates, a similar simple chronicle of events by years. From to the end they are exclusively Portuguese. The Cronica da Ordem dos Frades Menores is a fifteenth- century Portuguese translation of a fourteenth-century Latin chronicle, and has been carefully edited by Dr.
- Referências.
- Ich steig aus und mach ne eigene Show (German Edition)!
- Navettes (Fiction) (French Edition);
- The Japanese Girl.
- ;
- .
- Paço Imperial de São Cristovão;
Tello 15th c , and the Vida de S. Isabel, the Queen-consort of King Dinis earlier 15th c , are ' historical ' biographies ' Cf. Era de mil e quairocentos e quatro desoito diai do mez de Junho tremeo a terra ao serao muy rijamente e foi por espafo que disserom Pater tres vezes.
Here at last was some one with will ahd power to make the dry bones live. Of the four that have come down to us the Livro Velho is a jejune family register iith-i4th c. The manuscript of the third [0 Nobiliario do Collegia dos Nohres was bound up with the Cancioneiro da Ajuda, and together with the fourth, Nobi- liario do Conde D. Pedro, represents the lost original of the Livro de Linhagens of D.
Pedro, Conde de Barcellos - The Nobiliario do Conde has been shown by Alexandre Herculano, who printed it from the manuscript in the Torre do Tombo, to be the work of various authors extending over more than a century i3th-i4th , the Conde de Barcellos being but one of them. Pedro em sen livro is as natural as the mention of Innocencio da Silva in a later volume of his great dictionary. But it was this son of King Dinis who with infinite diligence searched for documents far and wide, had recourse to the writings of King Alfonso X and others, and spared no pains to give the work ' The Cronica Troyana, edited in by the Spanish scholar and patient investigator D.
Certainly the Livro de Linhagens is a vast catalogue of names, with at most a brief note after the name, as ' he was a good priest ' or ' a very good poet ' ; but it also gives succinct stories of the. Kings of the Earth from Adarri, including Priam, Alexander, Julius Caesar, and the early kings of Portugal, and it contains rare but charming intervals, green oases of legend and anecdote, such as the tale of King Lear with its happy ending, or the account of King Ramiro going to see his wife, who was a captive of the Moors. Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos, it has rendered invaluable service in reconstructing the lives of the thirteenth-century poets.
Many other allusions, both earlier and later, to the Breton cycle, the matiere de Bretagne, are to be found in early Portuguese literature: In the fourteenth century many in Portugal were baptized with the name of Lancelot, Tristan, and Percival; and Nun' Alvarez 1 chose Galahad for his model, and came as near realizing his ideal as may be given to mortal man.
In Gil Vicente's time the name Percival had already descended to the sphere of the peasants: Whether they were incorporated in the Cancioneiro from a Portuguese Tristam earlier than the Spanish version ? It was but natural that a Celtic people living by the sea, delighting in vague legends and in foreign novelties, should have felt drawn towards these misty tales of love and wandering adventure, which carried them west as far as Cornwall and Ireland, and also East, through the search for the Holy Grail.
It was natural that they should undergo their influence earlier and more strongly than their more direct and more national neighbours the Castilians, whose clear, definite descriptions in the twelfth- century Poema del Cid would send those legends drifting back to the dim regions of their birth.
Even to-day connexion with and sympathy for Ireland is far commoner in Galicia than in any other part of Spain. Unhappily, most of the early Portuguese versions of the Breton legends have been lost. The probability that these were written in Portuguese, not in Spanish, is increased by the survival of A Historia dos Cavalleiros da Mesa Redonda ,e da Demanda do Santo Graall, as yet only partially published from "the manuscript in the Vienna Hofbibliothek.
It was written probably in the fourteenth century, perhaps at the end of the thirteenth, although the Vienna manuscript is more recent and belongs to the fifteenth century, in which the work was referred to by the poet Rodriguez de la Camara. Mchaelis de Vasconcellos, Cancioneiro da Ajuda, ii. They are called lais, layx C. Traces of French remain in its prose. The only others that we have in print are the Estorea de Vespeseano and the Livro de Josep ab Arimatia, the manuscript of which was discovered in the nineteenth century in the Torre do Tombo.
This, in the same way as the Demanda do Santo Graall, is a later i6th c. It was also known formerly as Destroygam de Jerusalem. Esteves Pereira believes that the Spanish edition is a retranslation from the Portuguese text originally translated from the Spanish. Tennyson's revival of the Arthurian legend in JEngland evoked no corresponding interest in Portugal in the nineteenth century, and the primitive and touching story as published in has left Sir Percival in the very middle of an adventure for over a generation.
The descent of the Amadis romances from the noble ideal of chivalry of King Arthur's Court is obvious, but their exact pedigree, the date and nationality of the first ancestor of the Amadis who is still with us, has been the subject of some little contention. The problem of the date and authorship has become more fascinating than the book.
Champions for Spain and Portugal come forward armed for the fight: Henry Thomas holds the scales. The ground is thick with their arrows. Caelistina laena, nequitiarum parens, career amorum: A Portuguese Tristan may have existed, a Portuguese original of Tirant lo Blanch less probably, although Pedro Juan Martorell, who began it in the Valencian or Lemosin a ii de Giner de lany , declares that he had not only translated it from English into Portuguese but mas encara from Portuguese into Valencian.
He dedicated it to the molt illustre Princep Ferdinand of Portugal. Very prob- ably the fame and origin of Amadis accounted for this 'English' original, as mythical as the Hungarian origin of Las Sergas de Esplandian, and for its alleged translation into Portuguese. The words in this Prdlogo of his Amadis , que hasta aquino es memoria de ninguno ser visto, refer not to the fourth book but to Montalvo's Sergas de Esplandian, which is conveniently replaced by dots in T. Braga, QuestSes , p. Naturally we are curious to know what these antiguos originales were, but the question did not arise in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: Evidently Amadis was enjoyed both in Spain and Portugal.
It is mentioned in the middle of the fourteenth century in the Spanish translation, by Johan Garcia de Castrogeriz, of Egidio Colonna's De regimine principum, at the very time, that is, when the Spanish poet and chronicler, Pero Lopez de Ayala , was reading Amadis in his youth. This is one of the most definite early references to Amadis, but of course reference to the book by a Spaniard does not necessarily imply that it was written in Spanish, and indeed some of the vaguer allusions may refer to a French or Anglo-French original.
The most frequent Spanish references occur in the Cancionero de Baena, which was compiled in the middle of the fifteenth century, at a period, that is, which the last Galician lyrics written in Spain connected with the time when all eyes were turned to Portuguese as the universal language of Peninsular lyrics. Because the Portuguese language was used throughout Spain in lyric poetry, it is sometimes argued as if the Portuguese had no prose, could only sing.
The more real division was not between verse and prose but between the Portuguese lyrical love literature and the Spanish epic battle literature, and the early romances of chivalry, although written in prose, belong essentially to the former. Whether this Poetica be contemporary 13th c. It was probably when he was a prisoner after the battle of Aljubarrota that he wrote the Rimado de Palacio, in which st. Miguel Leite Ferreira's statement that Amadis is contemporary with the lyrics is therefore remarkable. We know that King Dinis encouraged not only lyric poetry but also translations into Portuguese prose, but all the early Portuguese prose works are assigned to the fourteenth, not the thirteenth century.
One of the earliest, the Demanda do Santo Graall, the language of which bears a close relation to that of the Cancioneiros, still belongs to the fourteenth century. Probably the later development of prose misled Leite Ferreira into making fourteenth-century prose contemporary with thir- teenth-century verse. The Infante whom he here on the strength of the passage in Montalvo's Amadis identifies with the son of King Dinis, not with the earlier Prince Afonso [c. If the first Peninsular version of Amadis was composed in Portuguese in the middle of the fourteenth century, it may have been eagerly read as a novelty by Lopez de Ayala.
There is no means of deciding with certainty whether Lopez de Ayala and Ferrus read Amadis in Spanish or in Portuguese, but there are inherent probabilities in favour of Portuguese. E 2 68 I books, are Portuguese rather than Spanish. Melancholy in- cidents, sentimental phrases and tears occur on nearly every page. Some critics even discern traces of Portuguese in the language.
It is noteworthy that while in Spanish it had been attributed to many persons, in Portugal tradition has persistently hovered round the name of Lobeira. Unfortunately the Lobeira authorship has given far more trouble than that of prince, Jew, or saint in Spain.
Zurara, basing his statement on an earlier fifteenth-century authority, in a perfectly genuine passage of his Cronica do Conde D. In the next century Dr. According to Nunez de Leam, Vasco de Lobeira was knighted on the field of Aljubarrota , according to Fernam Lopez he was already a knight in Sec, of course occur in early Spanish prose.
Soledad certainly occurs in the first three books more frequently than in other Spanish prose. The Portuguese atmosphere is altogether absent in Las Sergas. Livro d' Amadis, como quer que soomente este fosse feito a prazer de hum homem que se chamava Vasco Lobeira em tempo d'El Rey Dom Fernando, sendo todalas cousas do dito Liuro fingidas do Autor. E daqui [do Porto] foi natural uasco lobeira cj fez os prim'"' 4 libros de amadis, obra certo muj subtil e graciosa e aprouada de todos os gallantes, mas comos [so] estas couzas se secao em nossas moos os Castelhanos Ihe mudardo a linguoagem e atribuirdo a obra assi [so].
This passage is, however, absent in the earliest manuscript. The spelling couzas implies a late date for its introduction. The obvious sympatliy of the author for the escudero viejo who is knighted in Amadis ii. The year of his death, given as , is quite uncertain. Scares de Brito in the Theatrum forms no independent opinion: Floruit tempore Fernandi Regis. Vasco de Lobeira fui el primero que con gentil habilidad escribid libros de caballerias. NicolAs Antonio , Bib.
If he lived on through the reigns of Pedro I and Fernando , and acquired new distinction in battle in the reign of the latter, this might account for Zurara's assertion that he wrote Amadis in the reign of Fernando. It would seem then that Joan, not Vasco, wrote Amadis. But does the existence of the poem entail that of a prose romance? The early mention of Tristan, e. May we not accept the poem, written in the stirring metre, dear to men of action, used by Alfonso X CM. Certainly it is in the highest degree improbable that a Spaniard, writing at the end of the fifteenth century, should extract a poem from the Portuguese Cancioneiros and insert it in his prose ; but the improbability disappears if in the middle of the fourteenth century a Portuguese Vasco de Lobeira , perhaps drawn to the story by the poem of his ancestor, incorporated it in his romance.
Ostendere autem Lusitanos Amadisium hunc Lusitane loquentem, uti Castellani Castel- lanum ostendunt, ius et aequum esset in dubia re ne verbis tantum agerent. The challenge in the last sentence is of interest, as coming in date between the two statements by Leite Ferreira and the Conde da Ericeira asserting the existence of the Portuguese text. The threefold authorship of 'this family heirloom is even more cruu de creer than the theory that a single Lobeira — Vasco — wrote it in the middle of the fourteenth century. Moreover, if the Portuguese adaptation of an Anglo-French legend had been even remotely as developed as the form in which we now have it, the Infante Afonso must have seen at once that the faith- fulness of Amadis was absolutely essential to the story.
But especially the fact that the Portuguese Cancioneiros, familiar with Tristan and the matihe de Bretagne, are silent on the subject of Amadis is significant. In Gottfried Baist's argument, based on a rigid division between early lyric poetry as Portuguese and early prose as Spanish , the Leonoreta lyric, far from being a stumbling-block, is actually a sign of the Spanish origin of Amadis: Portugal was writing in Spanish.
And in one instance at least we have an early- Portuguese prose work of the first importance, the Demanda do Santo Graall, which with its gallicisms can by no stretch of imagination be accounted a version from the Spanish. It is plainly legitimate to hold that the story of Amadis was first reduced to book form in the Peninsula in precisely the same way as was the story of Galahad, i. Nor would the Portuguese, for all their familiarity with the story and topography of the Breton cycle, be likely to compose original works dealing with Vindilisora Windsor or Bristoya Bristol.
The Portuguese text, of which a copy, according to Leite Ferreira, existed in the library of the Duques de Aveiro in the sixteenth century , and, according to the Conde da Ericeira, in the library of the Condes de Vimieiro in the seventeenth , is still missing, as it was in Portuguese history, with its heroic achievements such as the conquest of Algarve, seems to have begun just too late to be the subject of great anonymous epics, or rather the temperament of the Portuguese people eschewed them.
Of five poems, long believed to be the earliest examples of Portuguese verse but no longer accepted by any sane critic as genuine, only one belongs to epic poetry. This Poema da Cava or da Perda de Espanha was an infant prodigy indeed, since it was supposed to have been written in oitavas in the eighth century. Fascination, of a different kind, attaches also to the fifth: No figueiral figueiredo, no figueiral entrei: It has been several times reprinted: Barreto, Ortografia , p. Its simple repetitions have a haunting rhythm, but they are perhaps a little too emphatic.
The impression is that its author had been struck by the repetitions in songs heard on the lips of the people, perhaps crooned to him in his infancy cf. One early epic poem Portugal undoubtedly possessed, the Poema da Batalha do Salado, by Afonso Giraldez, who himself probably took part in the battle The subject of the poem is the same as that of the Spanish Poema de Alfonso Onceno, but whether its treatment was similar we cannot say, as only forty lines of the Galician-Portuguese poem survive.
Since the authorship of the Spanish poem is doubtful and its rhymes run more naturally in Galician than in Spanish, the theory has arisen, among others, that Rodrigo Yannez, whose name perhaps denotes a connexion with Galicia, merely trans- lated the poem of Afonso Giraldez. Since the battle was fought in Spain it would be considered in Brandao's day a proper subject for a romance, but would be noticeable as being written in Galician. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, LitUrature Espagnole, ed. The best-known instance is Gil Vicente's fine poem muy sentido y galan as the editor says of D.
Duardos e Flerida, which only belongs to Portuguese literature through the excellent ' translation of the Cavalheiro de Oliveira ', among whose papers Garrett pro- fessed to have found it. Portugal possessed no epic cantares de gesta of her own, had not therefore the stuff out of which the romances were formed, and the birth of the romance coincided with the predominance of Spanish influence in Spain. It is therefore surprising to find in Portugal a large number of romances unconnected with Spain, the explanation being that, having accepted with characteristic enthusiasm the new thing imported from abroad, the Portuguese turned to congenial themes, of.
Had the romances been elaborated in the same way as in Spain, we might have expected a large number of anonymous Portuguese romances dealing with the Breton cycle, and indeed with early Portuguese history, so rich in heroic incidents. The fact that this is not the case and the number of romances collected in Tras-os-Montes alike point to their Spanish origin, while their frequency in the Azores denotes how popular they became later in Portugal.
In the sixteenth century their Spanish character wa;s recognized. The poor escudeiro in Eufrosina is bidden go to Spain to gloss romances, and in the seventeenth century, as a passage in Mello's Fidalgo Aprendiz well shows, they were better liked if written in Spanish. The partiality for Spanish applied to poetry of other kinds, and Manuel de Galhegos says that it is a bold ventpre to publish poetry in Portuguese.
It is therefore noteworthy that the nurse in Gil Vicente sings romances in Spanish. Theophilo Braga, who considers Spanish influence on the romances in ' Cf. Rodriguez Lobo, Primavera ed. More persuasive is the theory, developed by D. These Portuguese romances or xacaras in the Azores estorias and aravias often differ from the Spanish in a certain vagueness of outline and sentimental tone. They are frequently of considerable length. Many of them are undoubtedly of popular origin and have a large number of variants in different parts of the country. Romances velhos de Portugal, Madrid, The expression romance velho in the sixteenth century may mean a romance that has gone out of fashion.
Hei os de todos grosar Ainda que sejam velhos. Antigo may similarly mean ' antiquated ' rather than ancient. Barros, Grammatica, ed. Carohna Michaelis de Vasconcellos considers that the romances came from Spain to Portugal at the latestin the third quarter and perhaps in the first half of theiifteenthcentury. The second edition of Dr. Theophilo Braga's Romanceiro runs to nearly two thousand pages. The first two volumes contain over romances together with numerous variants. Of these 5 belong to the Carolingian, 8 to the Arthurian cycle, 63 are romances sacros or ao divino, 11 treat of the cruel husband or unfaithful wife.
In the third volume are reprinted romances composed by well-known Portuguese authors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It must be admitted that Spain generously repaid to Portugal the loan of the Galician language for lyrical composition — although in each case it was the lender's literature that profited especially if some of the most beautiful Spanish romances were the work of Galician or Portuguese poets.
But even after the birth of the romance Spain continued to cultivate the Galician lyric, until the second half of the fifteenth century. The last instance is sup- posed to be a Galician poem by Gomez Manrique , uncle of the author of Recuerde el alma dormida, No. This collection, published by Professor Lang at the suggestion of D. Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos, contains the meagre crop of Portuguese verse of the transition period from to , meagre in quality and quantity.
One name dominates the period. The love and tragic fate of Macias second half 14th c , Namorado, idolo de los amantes, gave him a renown similar to but far exceeding that of D. Joan Soarez de Paiva in the preceding century. So Moraes transforms Mile de Macy's name into Mansi. Imprisoned at Arjonilla in Andalucia for paying court to his sennora, he continued to address her in song and was killed by the lance that her infuriated husband hurled through the prison window.
In an older version, that of the Constable D.
Pedro in his Satira de felice e infelice vida, he saved the lady of his heart from drowning, and afterwards, as he lingered where she had stood, was struck down by the jealous husband. Enrique de Villena , who was perhaps only six when Macias died. Clearly his fame would act as a strong magnet to poems of uncertain origin.
The matter is of the less importance in that these poems, however love-sick, have but little literary merit. If the Galician Juan Rodriguez de la CAmara, a native, like Macias, of Padron, was the real author of the romance of Conde Arnaldos which is improbable , he was a far greater poet than his friend. Both the lyrics and the prose of his El Sieruo libre de Amor are in Castilian. The latter, a knight well known at the Court of King Ferdinand and an ancestor of Luis de Camoes, played a leading part in the troubles preceding the battle of Aljubarrota. He had come to Portugal from Galicia, and his name appears frequently in the pages of Fernam Lopez where it is written Caamooes till the year In the middle of the sixteenth century he is mentioned by Sa de Miranda's brother- in-law as a Court poet corresponding to Juan de Mena in Spain.
But there were other poets whose verse was probably not inferior ' Nobleza de Andalvzia , ii, f. Besides Macias the Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano contains the names of sixteen writers whose poems may not attain high distinction but prove that the Galician lyric continued to be cultivated by poets in the fourteenth and first half of the fifteenth century in Castille and Leon, Aragon and Catalonia. He may have been alive in , for a Doctor Gongalo Rodriguez, Archdeacon of Almazan, is mentioned as one of the witnesses to the oath taken by the city of Burgos to the Infante Maria in that year.
Having married one of King Juan I's dancing girls [una juglara in the belief that she was rich, he repented when he found que nan tenia nada. He next became a hermit near Gerena, and, this not proving more congenial than married poverty, he embarked ostensibly for the Holy Land, but in fact landed at Malaga with his wife and children.
At Granada he turned Moor, satirized the Christian faith, and deserted his wife for her sister. After such proven inconstancy we may perhaps doubt the sincerity of his repen- tance when he returned to Christianity and Castille at the end ' For the name of this hitherto anonymous poet see The Modern Language Review July , pp. Madrid, , p. The name was a common one. There was also a fourteenth-century poet called Ruiz de Toro. But for all his weakness and folly he seems not to have sunk utterly out of the reach of finer feelings ; he sang various episodes of his life, e.
This Castilian Court poet, born at Villasandino near Burgos and possessed of property at Illescas, was of a sleeker and more subservient mind than Garci Ferrandez and prospered accord- ingly, en onra e en ben e en alto estado. He wrote to order and was considered the ' crown and king of all the poetas e trovadores who had ever existed in the whole of Spain '.
This extravagant claim of his admirers need not prevent us from recognizing that there is often real feeling and music in his poems, of which the Cancionero de Baena has preserved over twenty. He writes in varying metres with unfailing ease and harmony, rarely sinks into mere verbal dexterity, and well deserves to be considered the best of these later Galician poets.
Side by side with the lyric the cantiga d'escarnho continued to flourish. Five fragmentary poems belong to the Infante D. Pedro , Constable of Portugal. As a transition poet he may be mentioned here before his father D. Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, since his prose works, which would naturally place him with his father and with D. Duarte, his uncle, belong.
By stress of circumstance rather than any set purpose he inaugurated the fashion of writing in Castilian, a fashion so eagerly taken up by his fellow-countrymen during the next two centuries. His life of thirty-seven years was thus as full of wandering adventure as that of any troubadour of old. To him Santillana addressed his celebrated letter on the development of poetry, and his own influence on Portuguese literature was important, for he introduced not only a new style of poetry, including oitavas de arte maior, but the habit of classical allusion and allegory.
His first work, Satira de felice e infelice vida, was written in Portuguese before he was twenty, but re-written by himself in Castilian, the only form in which it has survived. This firstfruit of his studies was dedicated to his sister. Queen Isabel, whose death he mourned in his Tragedia de la Insigne Reyna Dona Isabel , a work of deep feeling and some literary merit, first published by D. Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos years after Queen Isabel's death. His longest and most important poem, in octaves, Coplas del menosprecio e contempto de las cosas fermosas del mundo , reflects the misfortunes of his life and the high philosophy they had brought him.
Philippa de Lencastre , lived in retirement in the convent of Odivellas near Lisbon, and as a dedicatory poem to her translation of the Gospels wrote the simple, impressive lines beginning Non vos sirvo, non vos amo, Mas desejo vos amar. Ribeiro dos Santos, Obras MS. Pedro, filho do Snr. In reality he was not gifted with greater poetical talent than his brothers. He had himself seen Nun' Alvarez as a young man and the heroes who had fought in a hundred fights to free their country from a foreign yoke, and he had listened to many a tale of Lisbon's sufferings during the great siege.
His work at the Torre do Tombo covered a period of over thirty years. The last document signed by Lopez as oflScial is dated 1 ; in July he seems to have resigned his position at least temporarily, and on June 6, , he was definitely superseded by Zurara as being ' so old and ' Lopez himself was probably of humble birth. It appears from a document presented by Dr. Pedro de Azevedo at a meeting of the Sociedade Portuguesa de Estudos Historicos in July 19 16 that his wife's niece was married to a shoe- maker.
Needless to say, no English translation of Lopez exists. Joam I - F 83 weak that he cannot well fulfil the duties of his post '. That he lived for at least five years more we know from the existence of a document July 3, referring to the pretensions of an illegitimate son of Martinho which Fernam Lopez rejected. The latter is but a brief sketch, and lacks the unity which the subject-matter gives to the other two. His chronicles of the seven earlier kings disappeared in the revised versions of subsequent historians. Although they no doubt incorporated large slices of his work with little alteration, the freshness and the style are gone, the good oak hidden beneath coats of paint.
Whatever sources he utilized, Latin, Spanish, or Portuguese, he stamped his work with his own individuality. He himself frequently refers to previous historians, and often expresses his disapproval of their methods. Keenly alive to the dignity and responsibilities ' See A. Varias Antigvidades de Portugal , cap. Lopez' preface to his Cr. Da Guerra see Zurara, Cr. Mello refused the governorship of captured Ceuta in 5. By the side of the laborious prose and precocious wisdom of King Duarte this child of genius seems to give free rein to his pen, but it is his greatness and his title to rank above all contemporary chroniclers, not only of Portugal but of Europe, that he could combine this spontaneity with the scruples of an accurate historian, and be at once careful and impetuous, or, as Goes calls him, copious and discreet.
Indeed, every sentence is living; his unfailing qualities are rapidity and directness. Sometimes the sound of galloping horses or the loud murmur of a throng of men is in his pages. His chronicles are not only a succession of imperishably ' Cr. Certo he que quaaesquer estorias muito melhor se entemdem e nembram se som perfeitamente e hem hordenadas ; Cr. Nada hay semejante en las literatuyas extranjeras antes de fin del siglo xv.
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The words apply more accurately to Fernam Lopez. F2 84 vivid scenes — King Pedro dancing through his capital by night, the escape of Diogo Lopez, the punishment of D. Maria Tellez — but describe fully and with skilful care the character of the actors, pleasure-loving King Ferdinand, cunning, audacious, and accomplished Queen Lianor Tellez, wise and noble Queen Philippa, even morose Juan I, and principally the popular Mestre d'Avis and his great Constable, Nun' Alvarez Pereira.
And the Portuguese people is delineated both collectively and as individuals, in its generous enthusiasm, unreasoning impetuo- sity, and atrocious anger. That Lopez paid attention to his style is proved by his modest disclaimer bidding the reader expect no fremosura e afeitamento das pallavras, but merely the facts breve e scLamente contados, em bom e claro estilo.
His style is always clear and natural, the serviceable handmaid of his subject, admirably assuming the colour and sound of the events described, and his longest sentences are never obscure. He wrote his history on a generous scale, for in the rapidity of his descriptions this inimitable story-teller preserved his leisure. His last chronicle ended with the expedition to Ceuta The kernel of that chronicle had been the illustrious deeds and character of Nun' Alvarez, also described in the hitherto anony- mous Coronica do condestdbre de purtugal, of which the earliest edition is dated Esteves Pereira and Snr.
Joam, at which he was working in Joam , IntrodufSo, p. In chapter 55 of the Cronica de D. In chapter ed. But indeed the style of the two works is conclusive. A single age does not produce two Fernam Lopez any more than it produces two Montaignes or two Malorys. Those who read the continuation of the Cronica de D. Aristotle, Avicenna, and all the Scriptures are in his preface ; Job, Ovid, Hercules, and Xenophon, a motley company, mourn the death of Queen Philippa cap. Sermons extend over whole chapters, although, as he is careful to state, the exact words of the preachers could not be given.
And if he wishes to say that memory often fails in old age he must quote St. He wrote in Latin: De Bella Sepiensi Ined. Livro da Guerra de Ceuta Ceuta had been captured so swiftly that ' many had left the corn of their fields stored in their granaries and returned in time for the vintage '. The whole description of the expedition against Ceuta and the attack and sack of the city are extremely clear. He also delights in elaborate metaphors.
Nun' Alvarez has faded into the back- ground, but in his place appears the intense and fervent spirit of Prince Henry the Navigator. His partiality for Prince Henry appears in the Cronica de D. Joam, and in his Cronica do Descobrimento e Conquista da Guine it is still more evident. Pedro de Meneses was completed in , and the Cronica dos Feitos de D.
Duarte de Meneses about five years later he was not content with the ' recollections of courtiers ', but set out for Africa August and spent a whole year there gathering material at first hand. His style is less involved than is often said. Some of his sentences may contain as many as words and yet be perfectly plain and straightforward, whereas Mallarm6 could be obscure in five words. This chronicle has the same plethora of learned quotations. Chapter i quotes St. Pedro de Meneses twice.
Damiao de Goes regards him less favourably. There is also an affection- ate letter from King Pedro of Aragon to Zurara, dated June 11, , or Zurara was a Knight of the Order of Christ, with a comendant2ir Santarem, owned other property, and suffered himself to be adopted by a wealthy furrier's widow, an unusual proceeding for a person in his station.
But if, as this indicates, he had a love of riches satisfied by the king's generosity and this fortunate adoption , this in no way interfered with his work of collecting and verify- ing evidence nor affects the truth of his chronicles. Not he but the taste and fashion of his time was to blame if he laid desecrat- ing hands on the invaluable chronicles of Fernam Lopez, and thus became the ' author ' of the chronicles of the six kings, Sancho I to Afonso IV. He can rise to real eloquence, as in the beginning of cap. He has a misleading trick of saying ' The author says — diz autor ', meaning himself.
The immediate successor of Zurara as Cronista M6r was Vasco Fernandez de Lucena, whose life must have coincided almost exactly with the sixteenth century. He represented King Duarte at the Council of Basel in , and according to Barbosa Machado, who calls him um dos varoes mats famosos da sua idade assim na profundidade da Htteratura como na eloquencia da frase, he was still living in Unfortunately none of his works have survived. His manuscript translation of Cicero's De Senectute and other works were destroyed in the Lisbon earthquake Ruy de Pina has further been attacked because the people no longer figures, and the king figures too prominently, in the chronicles for which he was more directly responsible: Duarte, Cronica de D.
Afonso V, and Cronica de D. That is to censure him for faithfully recording the changed times and not writing as if he were his own grandfather. Pina was no flatterer, but the chronicle of Joao II inevitably centred round the king, and, in spite of its excellence and of the moving incident of Prince Afonso's death, is less attractive than those which are a record of freer, jollier times. Born at Guarda, of a family originally Aragonese, Pina served as secretary on an embassy to Castille in and on two subsequent occasions, and in the same capacity in a special mission to the Vatican in Joao II was laid under contribution by Garcia de Resende.
It may be doubted whether the Cronica de D. Afonso V contains much that is not Ruy de Pina's own. It was poetical justice that the interest of the story should be transferred from the Infante Henrique to the Infante Pedro. Pedro and dedicated it to the Duke of Braganza: Pedro Chronica Inedita, 3 vols.
Lacking Lopez' genius, but possessed of an excellent plain style, which only becomes flowery on occasion, and on his guard against what he calls the vicio e avorrecimento da proluxidade, Pina relates his story straight- forwardly, almost in the form of annals. He does not attempt to eke out his matter with rhetoric and has chapters of under fifty words.
The Cronica de D. Afonso V effectively contrasts the characters of the weak and chivalrous Afonso, who is praised as man but not as king, and the vigorous practical Joao H, and has an inimitable scene of the meeting of the former and Louis XI at Tours in The glow of Fernam Lopez is absent, but Pina none the less deserves to be accounted an able and impartial historian. To the fifteenth century belongs the Cronica do Infante Santo. It is impossible to read unmoved the clear and unaffected story of the sufferings and death , as a captive of Fez, of this the most saintly of the sons of King Joao I and Queen Philippa.
Fernando's misfortunes and one of the few of his companions to survive till or later. The founder of the dynasty of Avis, King Joao I found time in his busy reign of forty-eight years to encourage literature, ardently assisted no doubt by English Queen Philippa, and was himself an author. His keen practical spirit turned to Portuguese prose, and while as a poet he confined himself to a few prayers and psalms, in prose he caused to be translated the Hours of the Virgin and the greater part of the New Testament, as well as foreign works such as John Gower's ' Tudo contheudo no siguiente trautado eu o uy e ouuy igii ed.
The fact that no other name is given shows that then as now Basques were known by their nicknames. The same name figures in ' Pierre Loti's ' Ramuntcho This Livro da Montaria, which has little but the title in common with Alfonso XI's Libra de Monteria, lay un- published for four centuries, but is now available in a scholarly edition by Dr. Esteves Pereira from the manuscript in the Lisbon Biblioteca Nacional.
Valuable and interesting in itself, this book is of great significance in Portuguese literature by reason of the impulse thus given to Portuguese prose. It is impossible as yet to estimate the full value of the prose works that followed: But with King Joao's son and successor Portuguese prose came into its kingdom. Punctilious and affectionate, gifted with many virtues and graces, the half-English King Duarte i39i-i , Eloquente, shared the high ideals of all the sons of Joao I.
Liable to fits of melancholy, and of less active disposition than his brothers Henrique and Pedro, he proved himself not less gallant in action than they at the taking of Ceuta in , and had even earlier been entrusted by his father with affairs of State. His scruples as philosopher- or rather student-king during his unhappy reign of five years may have hampered his decisions, but his love of truth made the saying palavra de rei proverbial.
It contains chapters, often stray papers, sometimes translated from other authors. Braga in Historia da Univ. His literary genius was akin to that of his father ; he scarcely possessed poetical talent, although he translated in verse the Latin hymn Juste Judex, and possessed in his library a Livro das Trovas del Rei, in all probability a collection of the poems of others. Wit and originality he also lacked.
But as a prose-writer he ranks among the greatest Portuguese authors, and in style was indeed something of an innovator, using words with an exactness and scrupulous nicety hitherto unknown in Portugal. He gave the matter long and serious consideration, and the directness of his style corresponds to his sincerity of thought. His clear, concise sentences and careful choice of words show a true artist of unerring instinct in prose. The first part of the precept has been followed, but unhappily for Portuguese prose the second has been neglected.
In his youth the king was noted for his horse- manship, and his Livro da Ensinanga de bem cavalgar toda sella is a practical treatise based on his personal experience [nom screvo do que ouvi, as he says begun when he was prince, laid aside after his accession, and left unfinished at his death. It is remarkable, like the Leal Conselheiro, for the excellence of its style and the manly, thoughtful character of its author.
An excellent translator himself, he encouraged translations into Portuguese, in Portugal and Spain ; the Bishop of Burgos, Don Alonso de Cartagena, translated Cicero for him, ' It contains papers written at various times between and The date occurs p. Pedro , created Duke of Coimbra after the capture of Ceuta in , became almost a legendary figure owing to his extensive travels — andou as sete partes do mundo — and his equally exaggerated reputation as a poet, through confusion with his son the Con- stable. Regent from to , he resigned when the young king, his nephew and son-in-law, Afonso V, came of age.
His enemies succeeded in effecting his banishment from Court. Civil strife followed, and D. Pedro fell in a preliminary skirmish at Alfarrobeira in May Had he been granted a peaceful old age he would probably occupy a more important place in Portuguese literature. Apart from the historical value of his letters, his chief claim to be remembered literarily consists in the translations from the Latin, principally from Cicero, under- taken under his supervision or by himself personally, as the De Officiis, which was dedicated to King Duarte and is still unpublished.
Except the dedication to King Duarte between and , the work as it stands in six books is properly not D. The reader who does not bear this in mind might be startled to find refer- ences in a work of Seneca's to St. The work lacks King Duarte's gift of style which set the Leal Conselheiro high above contemporary prose. One of his sons was the famous and unfortunate Viceroy of India , D. One of the most important early prose works is the Boosco Delleytoso 15 It is a homily in praise of the hermit's life of solitude and against worldly joys and traffics, and is marked by a pleasant quaint- ness, an intense and excellent style, a fervent humanity and love of Nature.
He prays to be delivered from this darkness of death, and a very fair youth appears ' clothed in clothes of gleaming fire and his face shone as the sun when it rises in the season of great heat '. His ' glorious guide ', grorioso guyador, leads him to a dona sabedor and to dam francisco solitario, who in a fremoso fallamento praises the solitary life and condemns those who are puffed up with the conceit of learning, in itself ' a very fair ' Seventy-four black-letter double column folios, unnumbered, of fifty lines each. Acabouse fo [so] emprimir este lyuro chamado boosco delleytoso solitario p..
Nacional de Lisboa, Res. Nicolds Antonio thus refers to the work Bib. He tells of the lives of saintly hermits ; St. Thomas Aquinas, Dom Seneca, Dom Cicero, a mui com- fortosa donzella, and others exhort the sinner to leave the world, and he ends by relating his frequent raptures until his soul is carried to the terra perduravil. In its main subject, praise of the solitary life, the book recalls the title of the treatise ascribed to D.
Another remarkable early work is the anonymous Corte Imperial 14th or early 15th c , the language of which often bears traces of a Latin original. The Gentiles and Moors gradually accept her doctrines, but the Jewish rabbis prove more contumacious. Saints and angels and all the company of heaven discourse sweet music in the intervals of the discussion. The writer claims to be only a compiler: It has been attributed to the Infante D. Pedro and to Joao I. The colophon says that it se chama ystorea lomharda pero comuumente se chama flos sanctorum.
But the earliest and most splendid, an incunable of which Portugal has reason to be proud on account of its beautiful print, is the Vita Christi Lixboa, , trans- lated em lingoa materna e portugues linguagem from the original of Ludolph von Sachsen by the Cistercian monk Frei Bernardo de Alcobaga ti? Livre des trois vertus pour V enseignement des princesses A Portuguese version of a scriptural work entitled Sacramental, originally written in Spanish by Clemente Sanchez de Vercial, was published apparently in it would thus be one of the earliest books printed in Portugal , and was reprinted at Lisbon in Leite de Vasconcellos, Li foes de Philologia Portuguesa, p.
The native trovas had no doubt continued to be written by many poets in a country where poetry is scarcely rarer than prose, far commoner than good prose. But no one had cared to preserve them in a collec- tion corresponding to the Cancionero de Baena in Spain. When Portuguese poetry again emerges into the clear light of day Spanish influence is infuUswing and behind it looms that of Italian poetry, the natural continuation of one side of the Cancioneiro da Vati- cana. No Spanish poet now writes in Portuguese, many Portu- guese in Spanish.
Popular poetry and royal troubadours have alike disappeared, leaving a narrow circle of Court rhymesters. Stout, good-natured Garcia de Resende c. Born at Evora and brought up in the palace as page and then as secretary of King Joao II, he had every oppor- tunity of observing the events which he so graphically describes in his Vida de Dom Joao II ! Talented and many-sided, Resende continued in high favour during the succeeding reigns: Resende not only drew and wrote verses- but was a musician and an accomplished singer: Perhaps it only required the stress of adversity to inspire to greatness this blunted, pros- perous courtier — fidalgo da casa del Rei.
He was not a great poet, although he excelled the Court poets of the fifteenth century. As historian he has been unjustly condemned. If in his Chronicle of Joao H he made use of Ruy de Pina's manuscript chronicle, first published in , it must be remembered that it was customary for the official historians to regard their pre- decessors as existing mainly for purposes of plagiarism. Although Gujarati in ori- such as the receipt published here and dated Cochin, 23 De- perfectly clear that Diogo Fernandes did not go on to take up which said items remain registered in the account book of the gin, the engraved silver ittings of this casket features a totally Eu- cember In it, the recently elected factor of Hormuz, Dio- the position of factor in Hormuz, given that the city and king- said factor Diogo Fernandes, written by me Manuel Pinto scribe ropean character, placing the manufacture of the mounting in a go Fernandes, states having received from Diogo Pereira, factor dom would only come under Portuguese rule in the spring of of the said factory, and testifying this is true, wrote this conir- Goan or even Lisbon workshop.
The physical process to which the material was subject in tember and prevailed because of his superior artillery pow- and church ornaments necessary for the founding of chapels of the world on one of the carracks plying the India Run. Of the two marine tortoises species used in the on the other. Thus, we the green sea turtle Chelonia mydas and the hawksbill sea turtle palace. Many of these objects, while today ly conjectured, these caskets are totally freestanding and did not 2 Couceiro ; Dias , mainly pp.
Manuel I, Livro 36, f. The engraved decoration, consisting on bands of fo- also the case with many Indian tortoiseshell objects that began liage and birds bordered with friezes of half-circle motifs are to appear in the inventories of this period. This may have been Mannerist in style and very sober in execution. The second example [cat.
Included here is a there are some examples, noticeable in the frames decorating particularly precious example, a small nuptial casket exquisitely the sides of some of these caskets and on the underside of some worked in cuir bouilli, consisting of Renaissance tondi with busts mother-of-pearl dishes I have been able to analyse, where an- of a man and a woman [cat. Of the examples on display other kind of mother-of-pearl, with a whitish hue is used.
This here, the only piece made from mottled tortoiseshell [cat. I hope to publish this important inventory tivities. The irst casket [cat. A surprising example of this motif in the middle. Highly unusual, such motif is to be found in latter format is found in the Museo de Artes Decorativas, Madrid inv. CE and, perhaps because still unpublished, remains unknown to many Portuguese specialists. Some examples with pitch lids pointed gable for fans, two from Cambay worked with mother-of-pearl and one can be found in the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon inv.
A similar, rare and uncommon engravings. Not only are the dimensions of this cas- the latch reinforces the matrimonial meanings of these cofanetti ket extraordinary, but also its mountings are exceptionally rich, or cassette da sposa, blessing the couple and hence should not be with large ball-headed silver pins aixing the mother-of-pearl considered as subsequent additions. The silver bands soberly engraved in a Renaissance style lids, rarer than their prismatic lid counterparts, draw their with a continuous frieze featuring foliage, birds, animals and origins from caskets made out of wood, tooled leather and iron chimeras, running around the full extent of the casket, recalls straps used to preserve precious books of hours porte-missael the iron bands of European models, while contrasting with the and which were generally larger in scale.
The latter, executed in a Manner- ples, on display here [cat. The handle of the lid terminates in a yali-type in ine strips like bands, cut with scissors and pinned with lat- dragon, a common motif in the Deccan and in Northern India, tened, broad oval nails with star-like heads. The Axis axis , facing lions on the heraldically shaped escutcheon, decoration on the front and back sides is composed of three and a solitary Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis on top of wheels containing a lotus lower at their centre, while those the latch.
From this group, two large scale examples I would like to point out that the underside of and were given by Empress Maria of Austria to Fe- the casket is totally covered by chequered mother-of-pearl and lipe II in It is equally possible to examples from the Museu Nacional Machado de Castro per- identify the mother-of-pearl on the bottom as either Pinctada haps originally from the treasury of the Coimbra Cathedral , radiata or Pinctada maxima. Interestingly, a greyish coloured type the former Ernesto Vilhena collection in mottled tortoiseshell of mother-of-pearl adorns the wheels on each lank on the with dragons in the brackets or corners and another, also in a front, as well as the borders that is surely Pinctada margaritifera, private collection with peacocks, birds and other animals , in another species common in the Persian Gulf.
All of the friezes on this casket, great richness of this casket, leads to suspect that it was made for example, are made of small rectangular plaques of pearl oyster as a small nuptial casket or cofanetto. This same function can shell Pinctada maxima. Similar to the example here exhibited, hitherto un- examples, whether tortoiseshell or mother-of-pearl, in which published, [cat.
The back is similarly decorated in sheet the dating of these caskets dependent on the embassy of the silver, but in pierced openwork, enabling the contrasting crim- Mughal Emperor Akbar which came to Goa in This, which would have one hand, there is general agreement that from this date until originally been the front of the casket, is divided into three sec- the turn of the century, Mughal art was its infancy. Identical pierced me- gins of such works as the manuscript by Yusuf va Zulaykha dat- dallions, combined with inely trimmed straps decorated with ed , later added in the Mughal court ca.
This Indo-Persian artistic tradition was given that the model is medieval and European. In the example already deeply enrooted prior to the arrival of the Mughals, exhibited here, I wish to highlight how the application of sil- followed in the neighbouring sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmanad- ver bands is reminiscent of the irons of the original European gar and Bidar, and was therefore one of the artistic styles used model, which underscores an earlier period of production when in Goa before and during the period of Portuguese rule.
One document particularly relevant for its informa- tion regarding the transport of goods, especially for the storage ig. The jade surface is decorated entire network of contacts. This list itemizes names from the pieces of jewellery. After having placed the There were three de marca chests marca representing the size a small tortoiseshell writing cabinet, a Chinese box, an ivory decoration of ferroneries and cartouches on the lower section, gems in their inal positions, the grooves and the gem settings approved by Portuguese customs in which the earnings meu Cruciix from Ceylon with its wooden box, a gilded drinking it has a pierced strapwork design on the upper knop cap and is are covered with thin strips of the purest gold kundan which, vencimento of this anonymous oicial were stored, with the bot- conch horn and some scales to weigh gold, the latter used to probably of Portuguese manufacture.
The arms of the cross are subject to pressure by a burnishing tool and following layer toms illed with spices and packed up to the rim with a variety weigh the commissioned jewels he was bringing to Lisbon. It is not surprising that the irst object listed, hollow silver spherules providing great decorative efect. It was a large-sized Cruciix given that its approximate was inials of the arms of the cross are chased with stylized leurs- thin pure gold strip. Its format was certainly not very diferent -de-lys. Although of side each other. Containing a in openwork. Originally, and similar to the cross East.
A radiant nimbus, ers. Similarly to the Saint Francis Xavier From around the same period or perhaps slightly later, the relics of far distant saints they identiied with, and whose which served as models for Gujarati artisans; a boceta round reliquary-casket exhibited here, this is one of the few known is one of the rarest pieces in this exhibition [cat. He quadrangular slabs of intensely dark green nephrite, probably in an imperial workshop given the high quality rubies present, 48 See my previous text in this catalogue.
This conversion no with its paten which weighed one and a half marco [ This exhibition also twenty-six Christians —, continuing through to the issuing of show two turned gilded silver chalices, showing great simplicity the edict and the expulsion of the Portuguese in The Iberian copies a late sixteenth century model, with a bell-shaped bowl, model shown here is made in silver with great simplicity and a baluster stem and a circular polylobate foot. This Roman goldsmiths, dating to the second half of the eighteenth reliquary-cross is composed by two lat sections articulated with century.
These are not in silver but made threaded wire and the reliquary has a suspension ring on top for with less noble metals. On display is an interesting pair of cruets hanging. While diferent from the Sacrament as a chalice, representing the blood of Christ, above usual trays, these richly ornamented cruets [cat. The inscription one would slot to ensure that the acolytes did not, when bring- on the lower arm reads: In in Portugal or in Portuguese India. The cruets are surprising the list of the religious objects sent, there were two chalices not only for their forms, but also for the contrast between the with some gilded decoration contrasting with the remainder in body of the pieces in plain gilded silver and their silver ili- white silver.
They each weighed Strange- bands of rosettes in reserve, a serpentine frieze and palmettes ly, there is no record of their patens. With them, there would as the inner illing of the iligree. These cruets, with their their structure and decoration were late-Gothic style without any inluence of the new Renaissance decorative repertoire. Two other , f. Dating to the seventeenth or eighteenth century them even borrowed from aristocrats , others would have been gilt tanor with a lid. A tenor was an Indian unit of measurement, foot with the body, the body with the handle, and the lid with [cat.
In the civil jewellery section of this exhibition, with a curious rearing lion forming the igure of the prow. For similar cups, I have included some examples of co- I present some cups with lids [cat. These would have been stored in boxes presents a rare, stunning view into the belongings of the key collected for European kunstkammern towards the end of the gest they were likely produced in the same workshop.
Regarding the igures of Portuguese rule in Asia. Many were displayed as to the late nineteenth century, an interesting set are presented religious implements necessary for the Catholic worship we have recorded as made in silver, with some in all likelihood of Indian curiosities, as was the case with the Chinese libation cup carved here [cat. For use in his oicial chambers despacho , the list from rhinoceros horn mounted in gilded silver iligree shown comprising cruets with their trays, an ewer and a basin for of such objects and also their commissioning from local artisans itemizes an inkwell with a sand shaker.
For his chapel, the fol- here [cat. The Viceroy illuminated his dining table with six the Puriication , profusely worked in silver in a style typical of in Asia. In contrast, regarding non-religious silverware, not only lowing are recorded: To illustrate this type in Asia, should reveal more about transcultural exchanges and Chinese origin exhibited here for the irst time [cat. With a circular, slightly tapered foot, it has a biscuit-shaped Portuguese Asia and Portugal. Objects were transformed when exhibited here [cat.
In comparison with Europe, civil documents in Asia bowl formed by two caps joined at the middle, barrel-shaped deemed out of fashion, pieces renovated or smelted down to toire of shell-like motifs rocaille , along with a Chinese replica are rarer because of the lack of conservation and humidity. Renovations were ordered with each arriv- slightly later in date made in paktong [cat.
This However, I was able to locate the valuable postmortem inven- in style and a long spout terminating in the head of a dragon. She also had four wings across its three faces. This exhibition a gilded silver saltcellar, along with a candelabra, bequeathed on the India Run back to Lisbon. This palace was a corner- contains a iligree salver from Karimnagar [cat.
Of the candlestick worth twenty-four xerains 8, reais pawned to 26 text by Pedro Moura de Carvalho. It was the responsibility of the new gover- high-stemmed bowls, in keeping with the Italian tazza, the ex- 56 These cups, along with the remainder of the iligree pieces, nor to refurnish ex novo his residence in an appropriate fashion hibition includes a rare example in silver iligree [cat. While these objects were not of Portuguese India.
This was an example of a tities many diferent religious subjects. The identiied as originating from Cochin or Bengal in previous hair is styled into a high pompadour copete , typical of fashion scholarship, with mounts at each end, a mirrored lock, and silver at the end of the sixteenth century and adorned with a jewel.
The jewellery produced in Asia under holding the Christ Child, on one side and the Calvary on the Lusitanian inluence, for local consumption and for Portuguese other [cat. Two exceptional pieces held together with hinged gold mounts, forming two frames in ivory are exhibited here [cat. The irst is a very rare portrayal of decorating the middle sections, closed at the edges with corded a Portuguese aristocratic woman in full court dress carved with gold wire. This type of oval medallion, popular in Iberia in the special mastery [ig.
These slits are highlighted with gold aiglets puntas. The enamelled pelican in its interior, with probable Iberian mount- dress, which allows a view of the petticoat worn below, is pulled ings, can be found in the Metropolitan Museum of Art acc. This sculpture closely resembles the married In turn, a beautiful framed plaque made for suspension, woman in the engraving made by Joannes van Doetecum, and still with its original polychromy, gilding and silver mountings, ig.
On the Streets of Renaissance Lisbon, edited 73 Venturelli , pp. Postmortem inventory of Maria Pais, Goa, India, ; paper. Bolswert, after Peter Paul Rubens, - ; print on paper. An identical double-sided comb, in In a delicate portrayal of a young nun from the early seventeenth ivory with iligree decoration in its central section, is exhibited century [cat. This example is similar crystal medallion. Finally, show here is and granulation —, it is possible to conjecture that the Ambras a portrait of a court lady [cat. Similar hair adornments are present in example displayed here [cat.
The type of semi-spherical this exhibition, such as four Portuguese examples, eighteenth setting in pure, burnished gold applied over the gems in the century in production, a tremblant in which loral type elements form of lower buttons, surrounded by an indented frieze con- are made of gems set in gold, or gilded or white silver.
They veys the illusion of a larger size for the gems. Also composed resemble lowers and foliage, and are aixed to a metal stem of stylised bunched lowers and foliage, are devant-de-corsages which is then attached to the hair by the use of a spring, a coiled or stomachers. Some, shaped as interlocking elements, display wire, which enables these small and colourful jewels to vibrate great versatility and were applied or sewn into clothing. The same loral features, sang and hair pins bunga goyang worn by the descendants of the enriched with larger gems and new cutting styles relecting Portuguese casados which came from Christian Luso-Indone- the inlux of precious stones from Brazil, can be perceived in sian communities.
Produced in less precious materials than gold eighteenth-century Portuguese necklaces and chokers, formed and diamonds, such as silver or gilded copper and uncoloured by square-shaped sections interlinked by loops, which lend a gems, namely rose-cut rock crystal, topazes, sapphires and back superior freedom and lightness to the jewel design.
This same foiled glass, they are extraordinary for the mastery with which construction and decorative features was applied to recently the local goldsmiths adopted the styles of Portuguese court jew- exhibited Goan chokers, as well as pieces with Ceylonese or- ellery of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. These pieces, Such loral ornamentation, particular to the seventeenth in conjunction with the jewels from Goa, also on display here, and eighteenth centuries, with inspiration drawn from French bear witness to the constant renewal of a Portuguese presence prints, alongside the characteristic Portuguese style of gem-set- which remains a legacy of a cultural dialogue between gold, ting, can be found in a rare group of pieces of jewellery pro- silver and precious gems in this global exchange of patterns, duced in Indonesia and modelled after Portuguese examples, models and designs that I have outline here.
On the jewellery of Christian communities in the Moluccas, see Hulsbosch Technology, design and ornament Caption for page 92 ig. The stylemes of iligree, Hugo Miguel Crespo, ; drawing on paper. These stylemes, imbued with diagnostic qualities upon the careful observation of the objects on exhibition here on comparison with pieces with well documented and secure follows below.
Nevertheless, we are still lacking the elemen- chronologies, same or earlier, enable the identiication of the tary chemical analysis of the silver and gold, their alloys with ailiation of our objects within the scope of regional practices percentages and, more importantly, the identiication of trace deined in time. They equally help in recognising possible elements such as lead, bismuth and mercury that would pro- forgeries or subsequent alterations.
This openwork iligree is substan- recognition of the other probable centres of production receiv- tially diferent from the iligree which is applied to sheet-metal, ing their correct identiication. Both techniques could The paradigmatic case of iligree pieces proves elo- be combined with the application of metallic granules, called quent on this regard having been among those presented in granulation.
In gold casket once belonging to Matias de Albuquerque [ig. We know that both types of iligree, applied and open- 3 De Souza ; Ifeka ; Angle ; and Henn New Empire, is one of the most relevant testimony as to the 5 I have used the same method in the analysis of the gem cutting historic development of the openwork iligree.
This necklace techniques used in rock crystal pieces of Indian and Ceylonese origin contains spherical beads — with their caps formed by round whose results will be published soon under the title: Casket, Hormuz, Iran, ca. On the Streets of Renaissance Lisbon, served for the purpose of comparison. For the of comparison, I took moulds of freshly-sawn and reiled silver application of these same archaeometric methodologies on the sheet.
Of the two hundred and thirteen micrographs Ogden on ancient gold and silver and his scientiic analysis on taken I chose thirty two to present here to illustrate my arguments; their technology were inspirational to my research — Ogden ; these belong to seven objects of which ive are on exhibition. Of them, I should under- -called Hispano-Muslim, from the Umayyad dynasty through tings as part of the design. With an overall spindle-shape, these ear- neighbouring Spain and Besides the twisted centuries and therefore from a period already under Christian still fairly controversial issue as there remains the probable hy- strips tie-plates or tie-bars serving as support and positioned or cord , beaded, spool-beaded and spiral-beaded wires, the rule, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a work of the inest pothesis that this type of iligree, known as spiral-iligree, traces randomly.
Furthermore, the sudden develop- oration is composed of spirals illed with very small and ine bars, Iranian iligree between the eleventh and thirteenth cen- to the design. Jewish goldsmiths working on ment of trading activities with the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate of his wives, of Kerait origin a Mongolized Turkic tribe. The eign innovation that, in any case, experienced an extraordinary 9 Aldred , pp. Saint Petersburg — cf. Examples of this trend are not only the delicate jewellery the European market, not only in the eighteenth century but pieces belonging to Zhu Zhanji , Prince Zhuang even earlier.
In fact, this very same spiral motif can be found on The recurrent features in the iligree jewellery found there, while the gold iligree mountings of a Chinese libation cup dating to pointing to the same workshop, fail to clarify their exact origins, the irst half of the seventeenth century carved in rhinoceros that may just as well be Philippine or Chinese, pieces brought by horn — as a spreading lotus leaf — in a Portuguese private col- junks sailing from Canton Guangdong province , Quanzhou or lection [ig.
These mountings and cup are very similar to a Fuzhou Fujian province , thus produced in southern China or libation cup recorded in the Austrian imperial collections ever produced in Manila. The stylemes present in these valuable piec- since and belonging to the Kunstkammer of the Kun- es are: It should be un- rosettes formed of wire with a granule at the centre, an exclusive derscored that such attributions to Indian centres of production, feature of Chinese iligree.
Such features are also present, for example, on the gold iligree and jade nephrite. These two cups and their gold In reality, the identiication of every single object in iligree mountings were certainly produced in the same Chi- iligree, within the so-called Indo-Portuguese style, when ty- nese workshop, given the exquisite craftsmanship they reveal. In fact, we know of no doc- ippines , the destination for some migration by qualiied gold- umental reference to iligree production in Goa although we smiths in the centuries prior to the arrival of Europeans, and may be certain that some seventeenth and eighteenth-century also to the south of the Straits of Malacca, where some iligree pieces were made there.
With the exception of the iligree pro- objects were produced by Chinese craftsmen in Batavia Jakar- duced — perhaps as from the late seventeenth century — in the ta, on the northwest coast of the island of Java, Indonesia for Deccan, in central India, more speciically in Karimnagar in 27 Wang , pp. P, for the Vienna example; and Silva 1 , p. Attracting a rising level of the Early Modern period. In fact, only the likelihood of a Portuguese inluence on noted that there are no known comparable examples as regards Iranian art from the Safavid period , based on the openwork iligree prior to the late seventeenth century.
Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, acc. If other iligree traditions had existed, they would ing Indeed, while the introduction of enamelling in Indian analysed in the irst chapter of this catalogue —, there are only two ig. Crown, Beijing, China, before , Wanli period, Ming dynasty courtly workshops, as practiced in sixteenth-century Europe, pieces described as of Indian origin: Lid, Beijing, China, ; gold.
Probably While there is no evidence whatsoever leading us to believe that the irst pieces of Luso-Asian gold iligree pieces 38 Silva 2. On the Streets 2 , pp. Paul Holberton Publishing, , in conjunction with my essay on 37 Cf. This rich Goa side a Chinese writing cabinet, along with other Asian precious based matron would seem to have been involved in, beyond items and also including gold pieces from Hormuz, the follow- other types of trade, the importing of Chinese sugar through ing were recorded in writing: These pieces of jewellery are also recorded f. We do not only ind reference to the gold jewels of 2v.
Pieces made out with seventy-ive beads and seven spacers with its cross which of this fossilised tree resin, such as the rosary set with iligree weighed three omsa and three oitauas and the weight of each xe- in this exhibition [cat. This rosary would tion should be made to a precious documentary reference from then have had seventy-ive Ave Maria beads and seven Pater Nos- the postmortem inventory of Viceroy Martim Afonso de Cas- ig.
Post mortem inventory of Maria Pais, Goa, India, ; paper. Bahrain, then under the rule of the kings of Hormuz, subjects Pomanders illed with ambergris were worn next to the body of the Portuguese crown until It should be underscored which, with the naturally produced human heat, would liberate that an entire street in Hormuz was dedicated to the pearl trade. On this substance, see Dannenfeldt The same happened with gold mount- considered Iranian iligree from the medieval period and its not want to forget what is yours, and if Goa, which also belongs and silver pieces were exempt from the ten percent tax paid to ings for bezoars from the Persian pad-zahr , stomach secretions technical and decorative features, it becomes clear how these to Your Highness is a noble city it is due to Hormuz.
It should In the inventory of Maria Pais, the following pieces merchant of Indian gemstones, remarkably states that in Persia Syrians and Anatolians, from all the provinces of Persia, Tartars be underscored that coinage requires highly specialised skills in of jewellery are also recorded: And while Persian was highly segregation.
Iranian coastline to escape the intense heat: Its history and arrival in Lisbon is well known: As regards Ottoman jewellery 53 Aubin , p. On Iranian 54 Vecchietti , p. Nuno Vassallo e Silva ; Levenson ,Vol. I text 44 Floor , p. Komarof ; and Allan This gold iligree casket from Hormuz might therefore There he sponsored the construction of the churches of Nossa be dated to ca. This is a ine example strips of round plain rope wire, or twisted wire sahber , com- of miniaturised architecture, conceived with the help of a ruler bined with double braids mazvi ; loral-shaped swirls of twisted and a set square, and constructed from delicate panels of rope wire decorating the feet; and, signiicantly, the presence of small iligree wire design set on a square wire frame.
It has a rectan- granules, lightly lattened, forming triangles and rosettes mas- gular body ca. One of the most surprising features of this casket, no- simulating a roof. The front and back have three panels divided ticeable upon close inspection — apart from the extremely high by pilasters, two squared panels on the ends, each featuring a quality of its manufacture, rarely observed in Indian pieces —, is wheel of eight radial spokes with drop-shaped iligree decora- the presence of ine granulation habbiyat , also uncommon in tive elements, serpentine borders and swirls , and a central panel.
Inspired on the treatises of Se- advises in his treatise. A shape which reached Eu- underlying the diferent phases of production, from the design rope, more speciically Venice, via the Silk Road as can be seen through to the inal assembling. There are ten pilasters struc- in Early Renaissance cofanetti and scrigni di pastiglia, made with turing the box case , each decorated on the front with three aromatic pastes made from ambergris. This same shape and ar- thick twisted wires, or ropes composed of two wires of difer- chitectural design can be found on the well-known Cassetta ent thickness, ca.
This is a small, 1. The pilasters Valerio Belli ca. On the goldsmith, sculptor and author, see examples. Following this same central-European typology, although with 69 Cellini , p. See also the Milanese wooden casket, simulating damascened plaques, and rock crystal of which the overlaid with iron plaques damascened with gold and silver, today Portuguese Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga holds a valuable and in the Metropolitan Museum of Art acc.
On architectural design in — Keith , p. Portuguese precious metalwork, see Caetano These bun-shaped feet other tools such as mallets, anvil, chisels, etc. P , and intended for princely usage with its handle in numerals, thereby indicating the assembly sequence, give that ivory. Given the diiculty in attaching the plain on the inside. This sheet silver and its perfect inish is not box the case to the bottom plate in thick sheet silver using unlike to the one used on the Dresden casket by Jamnitzer, also solder, which could compromise due to excess heat the integ- set between the lion-shaped feet and the foundation pedestal rity of the delicate iligree panels, it understandable that the of the pilasters.
On the inside there is a inely incised paving master goldsmith responsible for its design and manufacture design composed of contrasting lozenges, polished and matt, chose such ingenious assembly method. Such technology was as can be seen from the micrographs taken with the scanning already broadly used in Europe and also Portugal as may be electron microscope [ig. Rather than being burnished, as seen in sixteenth-century chalices in the so-called Manueline might have been more common at the time, this sheet silver was style.
The perfection of the threads is comparable to other Eu- inely polished on both sides resulting in a mirror-like surface. Eucharistic casket, Lisbon, ; gilded silver. Lisbon, Miller, today in the British Museum inv. Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, inv. I 75 I should underscore that it is a rare opportunity, within both am currently preparing a commented edition in conjunction with the national and international context, and apart the scope analysis and the publication of the archival documents regarding of conservation and restoration works, to be able to analyse a the activities of this important goldsmith.
The record of some of disassembled piece of Portuguese sixteenth-century precious his tools, at a time when the already elderly goldsmith was blind, metalwork. Even rare is to ind published records of the is of capital importance to the study of workshop practices and disassembling of such pieces. Of particular value are: Le dette pietre consists on lattened twisted wire ca.
Given the extraordinary delicacy of sharpened and pointed; and with these pointers is used a ine- this iligree weave pattern, a similar thick sheet silver ca. These pointers serve to smooth out mm in thickness was used for the bottom, with an analogous the tool marks left by chisels, gouges, engraving tools and iling inely incised paving design of lozenges on the inside.
The bot- marks, or rasping left by metal iles. No saw marks were found during coat of arms, more precisely its escutcheon, of the Castro fam- the technical analysis of this piece, but only the striations left, ily: Argent six roundels azure [ig. This is the coat of arms ig.
Casket, probably South China or the Philippines, seven- teenth century; silver and gilded silver iligree. While there is no crest in our iligree-made coat of featuring rope twisted wire. The gilding, given the coverage arms, the circular wheel-shaped elements with eight radial spokes featured prominently on the central panel of the lid, side panels of the front lanking the shield and back [ig.
The 85 For example, in addition to the Vienna example see bellow , marks left by this type of high polishing are, contrary to those reference should be made to a casket sold in by Georg Laue visible on our casket, parallel, very ine and homogenous. Munich and also another one, more recent in manufacture, sold 83 Cellini , p. For his father his future political career Furthermore, the prestige and would arrive at the Court of Castile and appear before Felipe II to inform him of the decision taken by the king not to marry Marguerite de Valois Accordingly, he was tra a country house with its park and gardens as well as reveal- order another when needed [ One such piece, the Algarve, he was made Comptroller of the Household 23 his father, amounted to 1,, reais, therefore around one golden rectangle — the golden ratio or sectio aurea —, expressed by probably still in existence, is the famous casket from the Goa October His interesting post- de Albuquerque produced in Hormuz by local goldsmiths: Such documentary evidence sphere; one French metal astrolabe; a wooden box with three was probably made in ca.
Further cisco de Castro. We may also reject the fact, always more with a lenght of linen thread. This would explain is archaic shape, his tomb: A Goan place for its manufacture been crying. The presence production of a piece of this quality and nature. This discussion is 98 Cf. The Sapindus laurifolius, with some of the iligree wires then bur- square-shaped panels are decorated with alternating designs: Both pieces are highly uncommon frame, are decorated with lozenges and hearts, forming a cross- in what regards their typology: It should be underscored that the three pieces repeting the pattern seen on the front, featuring instead spiral display diverse origins: All the iligree decoration consists of quadrangular, ver , the salver belongs to a family living in the region of Por- lattened and twisted wire ca.
The top is crowned by a cross ed and quadrangular wire ca. What is more sign. However, the solder, applied in thin while the outer ring with heart and spiral-shaped motifs simi- strips, is not only visible from the reverse but also visible from lar to a bracket-lobed lower border. This piece is intriguing in the front. The similarity in technique and decoration between what regards its design and geometry based on the numbers these three pieces, alongside the materials used and identical 8, 4, 6 and 12 and by the mastery of its execution, with only wire thickness, help us posit that they probably came from the minor traces of solder visible only from the underside of the same workshop or belong to the same iligree tradition, active iligree decoration.
Strips of sheet silver ca. These toothed collet 1mm The iligree on this piece is unusual not for its general design, consisting in a Untracht , p. The second, smaller [cat. In fact the structure, which con- trunk-shaped casket, features a looser and less reined iligree sists of quadrangular wire ca. Its two decorated with and a more constrained design, with rosettes hinges are tripartite, made from coiled wire, soldered to the up- and swirls; the use of twisted wire probably consisting of three per and lowers sections of the back by means of inely worked or more round wires ca.
The underside also proves unusual without any feet, in singular feature of this casket. The lock is but- referred to, such as the combination of the serpentine border ton-shaped with rotating rosette with an opening slot that locks with the palm leaf fan, or pankha motif. This pankha motif is dis- or unlocks the small lid lever. This is a locking system com- tinct from the aforementioned Chinese and central Asian spiral- mon to other iligree caskets considered of Goan manufacture, -motif that can be found on Ming iligree pieces, such as the which may prove to be the most probable origin for this piece.
Synagogue of Amsterdam the Esnoga , and are today in the Vic- Occasionally, within the iligree illing of this larger pankha mo- toria and Albert Museum inv. One is large in scale [cat. Also of probable Goan origin and seventeenth cen- Goan iligree. Of the other two caskets on exhibition here, with tury in date is a delicate and rare miniature altarpiece in gilded domed lids and bun-shaped feet, the irst, larger in size [cat. Featuring a round arch, lanked compact, with coiled spirals in twisted wire ca. The iligree work, far from being perfect in its Ming dynasty early seventeenth century , follows the shape of execution, features some of the stylemes previously identiied as archaic bronze vessels and is decorated with hornless dragons typical of Goan production such as the pankha motif.
Worthy chilong on the handle, facing kui dragons on the lower section of mention is the Hindu character, probably of local inluence, of the bowl and a meander border on the inner rim. This cup is of the wire pattern, as seen both on the base and on the pedestal, mounted in gilded silver iligree featuring stylemes that are not with stylised lotus lowers as motif. From gree produced in Karimnagar, as can be seen on the egg-shaped the Philippines but similarly produced by Chinese artisans is container for chunnam [cat. This round spiral motif is known in Indian iligree rock crystal [cat.
The cen- and steped lids such as the gilded silver casket recently sold by tre of production for another round salver [cat. It is surprising how this shape -pointed rosettes in reserve making part of the decoration point has been interpreted in the literature as a copy of an European to a Chinese inluence and probably to a Philippine or Batavian model when these small chests represent a direct transposition from Batavia, present-day Jakarta workshop.
These rosettes are in silver of the money caskets typical of Ming China found not only on the cruets discussed in the second chapter and found in graves dating to this period. In the Alexis of this catalogue [cat. Also dii- room known as lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum , the same shape as the cult in detecting their origin are these cups [cat. LS E , the work of a Chinese pronounced contrast between the thick quadrangular structure goldsmith working either in the south of China or in the Phil- wires and the ine wires used on the iligree illing —, similar ippines, which features not only a decoration with loral motifs to those seen on this last mentioned pieces, which would have been produced in the Malay archipelago, probably Batavia and already into the eighteenth century.
Jiajing period, see Wan , pp. On display here are two of these gently hammering with steel punches with iner or textured caskets, one with a lat lid and the other with a luted, polylobate tips over a rigid surface such as an anvil. In the latter, [cat. The decorative elements all with the same shape and correspondingly weight is also a characteristic feature of this production, constrast- saving on both time and material. The resulting motifs, forming ing with the lightweight pieces produced in Goa, which are in the structure of pieces or applied soldered , are less resistant and this case easily identiiable considering the thikness of the sheet subject to deformation given the thinnes of the sheet metal.
To silver used ca. Of this production there is also prevent this, the Indian technique also consisted of illing their an octagonal pyx, a container for the Sacred Host [cat. In Goa, it was common to hear these two sayings in a probable indication of an Augustine commission and quite cer- Konkani about the ubiquity of this lac, a source of issues arising tainly a piece produced by Chinese goldsmiths in the Philippines. Moreover, kundan may also be found tility plasticity and mechanical strength.
This practice contrasts applied in single collets, a feature common in Ceylonese jewels with the excessive, immoderate use of these precious metals, and jewelled objects, were the technique, called locally tahadu especially for silver, by Chinese artisans, given the abundance kola bemma, was introduced by goldsmiths of Tamil origin kam- of that metal in China, resulting in the very heavy pieces pro- malam. The main metalwork in gold in order to receive the gems which consists of alveolus.
I text by Maria Menshikova. This wil be the work of the kundansaaz, as can be seen in this ine and curious hair ornament [cat. These chisel-cut openwork tankla featuring a motif or a scene in spathes were used as decoration in the knot of the hair of Goan miniature, afterwards mounted in a collet jadana as if a gem, women.
Given their rarity, ephemeral duration and high cost, on a relective silver or tin foil, and thereby emphasising the these spathes were translated to precious gold in the form of contrast between the glass and the openwork gold. The same happened with the remaining lowers rare devotional jewels, made to European commissions or for applied by Goan women as hair decoration; thes loral deco- Christian Indians, the exhibition also contains a cross in white rations, deemed unappropriate to Christians, were prohibited jade nephrite , similarly from northern India [cat.
Of these, stands as parallel the in the Metropolitan Museum of Art acc. From the micrographs [ig. The upper section, serving as a cover silver used but also the use of embossed dies for the beaded to access the relics within, is decorated with three borders and and rosette motifs in addition to the high quality of the chased crowned by three pinnacles.
Each of the eight faces panels work and the chisel-cut technique used for the pierced open- serves as a window — in order to display the relics preserved on work. This system, certainly inspired on the tomb of the Similarly decorated in pierced openwork we also ex- saint dated ca. Its , ; ig. Whilst the Goan architectural design, modelled on contemporary tabernacles, origins of two of them does prove easy to ascertain, as well as would seem to suggest that the saintly relics rank in redemptive their contents — preserved in situ in the second example —, there efectiveness alongside the Eucharist itself, the Holy Host, thus is greater controversy around the other two silver pieces.
Totally acquiring an exceptional symbolic importance. The trellis, or lattice mid-sixteenth century. Produced in large quan- pets in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In reality, the tities by the Jesuit pharmacy, its sale would annually amount reliquary-casket lattice openwork design greatly resembles the to ifty thousand xerains, an astronomical ifteen million reais. I text by Nuno Vassallo e Silva. Used sparingly, scraped, ground, diluted into elixirs or entirely of gold inv. The gold example [cat. It is likely of Goan origin and dating from ing for its weight, in itself extraordinary, and for its construction: It would have served to store chunnam, or hydrated ferronerie, still protecting the original stone pending from a chain, lime calcium hydroxide , a paste used to chew areca nuts Areca is of Iberian design and of clear Indo-Portuguese origins.
Very catechu , along with spices and also leaves of tobacco wrapped in similar, and certainly of Goan manufacture, is another example a betel leaf Piper betle ; a digestive, stimulating and energy pro- with an original stone presented recently by the antiques dealer viding compound known in India as paan and consumed in the Georg Laue. It example of workshop procedure as regards these two techniques.
Kosambi ; and Ames They render clear that the loral decoration was made with such a procedure probably in efect at a workshop lacking using a limited set of tools punches and chisels resulting in in iron chisels of a greater range of shapes. The punch also highly characteristic of this production.
The almond-shaped eyes, the core, with the holes on the base still surviving [cat. This the piece of cloth that Christian Goans borrowed from the dress is a processional idol utsava murti made from panchaloha, a sacred style of Hindu women. The main idol mula murti, cially. Her hands are delicately cast, probably from wax, and are or mula vigraha , from black granite, seems to have been saved in set inside the sleeve openings, where even the buttonholes were the sixteenth century by leeing Hindus, when the original tem- depicted.
Similarly, the ana- Silva 1 , pp. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, acc. This represented the be- martyr saint by Hindu artists versed in the arts and technology for ginnings to the worship of this saint that would certainly have the production of idols and in their treatises shilpa shastras , hand- been advanced by the founding in of the Brotherhood of ed down from generation to generation. Whatever the case, in accordance with saint whose worship was certainly held in great importance in the chronology of its decorative features, in conjunction with the city of Goa —, this precious sculpture depicts Saint Geracina, the clothing worn by the saint, a Flemish gown with a square one of the handmaidens to Saint Ursula martyr and princess , neckline following in the fashion of a sixteenth-century court known as the Eleven Thousand Virgins of Cologne.
Thus, we would On Bhuta masks, see Figiel They various pieces of Chinese silver that have not hitherto would bring other dyed fabrics from the Coromandel Coast; been subject to appropriate identiication: This alum, sugar, radix Chinae, and a large quantity of porcelain, a would seem to refer not to buttons, normally identiied by their myriad of very rich tapestries, coverlets and bed curtains, beds, number, but rather to hair adornments shaped like branches gilded beads, chairs and immense quantities of other very valu- with stylised lower buttons, usually worn by ladies of the upper able curiosities.
It would saint Hiliado, captain of the Ten Thousand Martyrs [from Mount seem however that art historiography, contrary to the Portu- Ararat], set in one reliquary from China, with glass panes, col- guese of the sixteenth century, has remained content to linger umns and silver ittings.
According to the verbose and well informed Jacques de Coutre also reveals similarities with works that in recent times have had ca. Jordan 1 , p. For the characterisation of this group of caskets, see the , f. Missal stand, South China, Guangdong province, ca. However, the ittings and the decoration are clear- or more leagues than the island [itself] [ The same shellac leaf gilding was applied in the hundred tons.
The casket, similar to other examples exhibited here birds, hares, goats and deer, among bamboo, pine and coconut dynasty for the taste of its meat; deer perhaps Cer- -Portuguese as Luso-Asian latu sensu to Goan took place [cat. Having failed to identify the endem- vus eldi, one of the island species ; coconut trees Cocos nucifera , without the production of any evidence or examination pro- spotless ventral section of the Hawksbill sea turtle Eretmochelis ic fauna precisely conveyed here, these scenes were thought to whose coconut milk is greatly used in the local cuisine; Hainan posing such justiication, the new proposals for attribution, imbricata , shaped into the form of a quadrangular casket with a be Indian in character, made by Indian artisans in the Chinese white pines Pinus fenzeliana , or perhaps the species endemic to whilst timid in their formulation, were based on concrete ma- faceted or prismatic lid pyramidal with canted sides , was made style or by Chinese craftsmen in Portuguese India, either op- Guangdong, Pinus wangli; and bamboo zhu , in particular the terial features that, being indisputable, contribute towards a total tions proving incorrect and unnecessary.
An island known to and given the kirande gilding technique used, that this piece is in produced in Macao, it is important not to forget that despite its a time that can only correspond to the origins of the object and the Portuguese since , it was one of the territories visited keeping with Chinese Ming art and that its centre of production considerable growth throughout the inal years of the sixteenth therefore to their initial moment of construction and assem- century, this minuscule territory ceded to the Portuguese in , in the very earliest years of the sixteenth-century voyages along is situated in southern China.
On these commissions and the Luso- of these three pieces is Chinese, speciically from the south of Chinese artistic interrelations, see the summary by Krahl ; It should be underscored that this author stresses the non-existence of any artistic production speciic to Macao as has otherwise Cruz , p. As regards the Hainan These probably served, and in accordance with the highly practical of origin for this type of motifs would be diicult. On the island in the medieval period, see black goat, see Zhou In particular on the birds of Hainan, see spirit of the Chinese, to mark down their contents.
It a derivative of the mushroom of immortality, lingzhi. This mul- helps us posit for the same quality of the chisel work, the same an , alternating with hares perhaps Lepus hainanus and various is indeed on the band on which this upper bar rests that we ind tiple form, in a rosette — which bears no relationship with the type and variety of chasing tools and the same motifs designed small birds, some possibly depicting the small Oriolus mellianus, this theme with the same desire for many descendants as also corners decorated with palmettes of Iranian inspiration as can onto the sheet silver, here less thick, and by a hand well versed and clearly also the Melophus lathami [ig.
The three handles, moving within a Songde Tang collection, or on another dish from the Yongle pe- in diameter found in the tomb of Lu Shimeng , diminish when compared with the extraordinary gold lid dat- hoop ixed to the tortoiseshell with a chrysanthemum shaped riod in the British Museum inv. As these bols of fertility in Chinese culture and when associated with the lock plate and on the latch next to a melon from which Liang, and considered an imperial gift.
Therefore, a are known which also express the same symbolic message. I refer to a and grandchildren songshu putao , given that these coiled motifs featuring melons [ig. Symbolic is also the jointly depiction of chisel or punch with a circle as the point, resulting in a very hallmark of a Lisbon goldsmith and is part of the collection of upon the homophony between the words designating the squir- birds and lowers huaniao , so common in Chinese art.
Thus, regular surface with meticulously juxtaposed circles forming a the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga inv. Reference corresponds to a Central Asian model originally metal and latter symbols of longevity. The theme of the grapes that can be ob- highly characteristic and a symbol of beauty, purity and longev- should be made to the countless chased silver boxes found in carved from jade — such as the nephrite example from the Timu- served in the bronze mirrors of the Song dynasty indeed proves ity, and the lower of winter; the chrysanthemum Dendranthema the so-called Belitung shipwreck, on the Java Sea, an Arabian rid period, ca.
PDF , of which model several summer and the Buddhist symbol of truth incorruptible hon- acterised are lagrant. Not only does the security and irmness same theme of vines and bunches of grapes, is enriched by the other examples are known. Such abundance and of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna inv.
Silva ; and Silva 1 , p. The and from there to Macao where they were illicitly traded, due rim of the lid is decorated with a dotted border, also typically to the ban then in efect, for Chinese silk. One of the Japanese silver that the Portuguese brought from Nagasaki in most interesting features of this libation cup is that its surface large quantities, there was this Peruvian silver with which, in was left uncarved, maintaining the original, natural nodules of the beginning of the Early Modern Period, sought to meet the this Indian rhinoceros horn, carefully sanded and polished.
This intense level of Chinese demand for silver. The edges are covered with mould- here [cat. Sackler Gift, , acc. The lock plate, cost on the underside. The handle on top of the lid is Indian origin for this precious object. This pieces was in fact in gilded silver and simple in design. In its form and propor- made in southern China and in this case given its seventeenth- tions, the casket follows the Chinese prototype for a portable -century chronology possibly in Macao, even if Guangzhou document box xiaoxiang , here with a handle.
A highly unusual stands as the most probable centre of production. On feature example of this type and form, in lacquered wood and basket- that received little attention is the fact that the person who work with ittings in brass, dated to , may be found in the commissioned it and later became its donor, Manuel Godin- British Museum , In fact, an inscription in capital box or jewel case. Hence, this casket was made from Spanish art of silver in China and recalls typically Chinese compositions applied in the decoration of lacquered and carved pieces as well as porcelain.
Lisbon, Private collection; ig. Among these stand out the ewers, vasi preparation of ink. In many irresolvable questions that they pose. Objects both out of the Milanese workshops of Saracchi, the case of the aq- of the oceans, with enormous mouths and eyes, strong teeth, carved red lacquered cinnabar round box inscribed with the large in scale and excessive weight — some weighing around ive uamanile ca.
In the an unusual chimerical form. This type of representation unequivocal and in themselves point to a Chinese origin for land of the Batak: These ly- of the wings, the presence or absence of spikes in the snout and consisting of a zoomorphic mask depicting a mythical igure, These peonies, small in scale, very closely resemble those dec- ing, jumping animals, hunt monkeys and other animals [that live] forehead of the dragon, the inial of the tail lid and its screw the glutton [ig.
Signiicantly, during orating the exterior of a small and minutely carved porcelain on top of trees, from which they subsist]. Unfortunately, the sea and is deployed as a warning whenever eating or drink- of Chinese Art, at the British Museum inv. Furthermore, in a list of traditional motifs in the Capela de Nossa Senhora da Guia.
Tesouro da Trindade
Indonesia, sometimes with wings and their bodies covered with likes to eat and drink; it used to appear on the surface of the mention a dome-shaped round gold box decorated with styl- In reality, in an engraving dated by Aertgen scales as if a dragon and the vehicle of divine protectors, such dings [e. Saracchi, see Venturelli , pp.
As regards the widyadhari of Bali, see Reichle , cat. Libation cup, the bowl, South China, the mountings probably also South China, mid sixteenth century, Ming dynasty ; rhinoceros horn, gilded silver and enamels. Vngue Leo water fountains. This brief example show us that violence is ist productions. Oddly, the only comparable pieces to these aquamanilia are produced in Europe but common to the representations of the some large censers from South American and probably of Pe- taotie and kirtimukha, with which it may be confused.
This, there- ruvian manufacture, depicting precisely crowned lions. This renders reach Portuguese Asia in the baggage of some patriot travelling the origins evident both in terms of the carved cup and its un- on the India Run. Everything would point in this direction. The cup and its mountings were made in southern China, autonomous way as regards the governance of the archipelago, relatively close to the traditional centre of production of such demarcating itself from the central power nominated by Lisbon, carved rhinoceros horn cups, the coastal province of Jiangsu. Considering the era in lines and the greater variety in the punchers indicating a work- which we believe they were produced, it is important to recall shop with a higher level of resources and tools.
This occurs because the very coat and also the Ceylonese punched grounds that we have had the of arms of Portugal features precisely a dragon or a winged opportunity to study. However, while the material and excessive abundance of silver — for example, take the enormous thickness of the sheet silver that greatly hindered the radiography process Jordan Gschwend This reliquary stored with Indian art. Together with the granules at the base, the court of Emperor Kangxi r. Any attentive look soon discovers activities, I propose the dating of this unusual reliquary with its alongside small birds and butterlies set with enamels [cat.
These motifs con- Finally, of the greatest level of artistic and technical of elements in tremblant. This en tremblant system, in usage since or from Guangzhou Canton. The suggestion that it could have sist in modular variations symmetrical patterns of the double execution, we exhibit a small group of silver objects, or mount- at least the Liao dynasty, can be found in Ming jewellery in been made in Macao — a hypothesis always raised in Portuguese heads of ruyi, or jianhuan, a motif also known in the shape of ed in silver, of Ceylonese origin.
They represent an important pieces resembling seventeenth and eighteenth-century Europe- historiography more for post-colonial reasons than based on coiled pommels, given its previous usage in the decoration of testimony to the art of the Ceylonese goldsmiths badallu , an en tremblant hair pins and equally common to the jewellery any de facto knowledge of Macanese and Chinese silver produc- the handles of archaic Chinese swords.
One of these hair adornments made trasting with the silver works known in Macanese collections in a coniguration similar to a precious round box from the the continuous conlicts that characterised the period of Portu- from very thin sheet gold ca. The oldest surviving example, from the lowers, and belonged to Lady Wei, concubine of Zhu Zhanji been characterised as merely an adaptation of a post-Tridentine Metropolitan Museum of Art acc.
Another parallel, even down to the ap- kola , in compositions that albeit exhibiting a clear horror vacui Indo-Portuguese oratory and may have been commissioned for plication of ruyi decoration in this way along the stem comes have great lightness. This is also not an unknown typol- with the handle of a fan found in the tomb of Chou Yu dated serve only to emphasise the border and add a foot to confer the ogy in what regards private, individual Buddhist altars butsudan Silva 3 , pp.
C-3 text by Nuno Vassallo e Silva ; and Morna , pp. According to that fell from the sky in a chest and which symbolise Buddhist this last scholar personal communication , a private silversmith from Canton sharing the same name and using a similar mark, teachings. In Chinese culture, these gems are associated with the seems to have produced export pieces from to ; if, in Beer , p. This stands because on the voyage experienced by many with great diiculty can the route be deduced. Contemporary to the previ- of Kotte in the middle of the sixteenth century.
Somewhat later ous, and a genuine jewel-like weapon intended for displays, this in date is this inely carved ivory powder lask [cat. Of geography, scattered into a myriad of cultures, states and nations the two kasthana swords, the irst [cat. The handle, ductions and the stylistic and regional variations experienced formed out of a single piece of silver, is copiously decorated: We may hope that the future publication of the results of archaeological excavations, in particular targeting shipwrecks in the seas of Asia, undertaken with due care, shall contribute to Deraniyagala Hakluyt Society, , pp.
Aldred, Cyril, Jewels of the Pharaohs. Lions, Dragons, and Other Beasts. Os O Tesouro da Vidigueira cat. Maria Augusta da Veiga cados, comentados e comparados com os de ed. Frei Universidad de Murcia — Servicio de Portugueses, Pegadas dos Carvalho Oicina da Musica, Lisboa em ed.
The Carvalho 1 Memoria in Yarshater, Ehsan ed. Secondary Sources Arbeteta Mira principessa del Rinascimento. Adolfo Casais Monteiro ,Vol. Kunsthistorisches Museums Wien, 3, cat. A Brief of Singapore Press, Per Edizioni Scelte, The Construction of an Lanka National Museums, Joias de Ouro da Antiga Goa.
De Souza, Teotonio R. Coomaraswamy Splendours of the Orient. Jewellery, Castilho, Manuel ed. Nacional-Casa da Moeda, , pp. Dehejia Domingues, Francisco Contente, A 3, , pp. Objectos para o estudo da arte Feest Orient,