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The typology see Fig. Although this typology does not entirely do justice to concept specifics, it can be used to position and assess the approaches mentioned above in view of their applica- bility. The works of Hofstede , , which are grounded on a value-based concept of culture, or of Trompenaars are typical examples of some positiv- istic orientation which includes only a few cultural dimensions lower left quadrant in Fig. It can be considered as a typical example of an interpretative approach which includes a large number of cultural aspects.
In order to assess the practical applicability of different types of cultural concepts from a marketing perspective, the following criteria were used: Furthermore, their appli- cability will increase the more a broad-based coverage of experienceable cultural similarities and differences is obtained.
Considering the geographic scope, culture concepts that may be applied more universally are considered preferable due to the increasing globalisation of markets. Finally, the economy of data collection and interpretation also plays an important role in its assessment with regard to practi- cal relevance. Based on these arguments, none of the concepts outlined above—as reflected in the typology in Fig.
A similar trade-off prevails in an assessment along the methodological dimension. The more interpretative the approach, the higher its managerial relevance and coverage of cultural phenomena is. In contrast, these approaches, however, lack cross-cultural explanatory power and economy in data col- lection. None of the extreme positions in Fig. On the contrary, concepts of culture offering a limited range of cultural vari- ables are more suited to conceptualising sensitivity training.
A mid-range complexity facilitates the collection and processing of information among trainees.
The concept of cultural standards The concept of cultural standards, whose cornerstones are outlined in the following section, has its origins in various disciplines: In general, people enter intercultural interactions and activities relying on information and experiences that are shaped by their own cultural background.
Consequently, conflict-ridden and straining incidents occur due to the clash of the contrary cultural orientation systems of the people involved. Cultural orientation systems are developed through a process of individual socialis- ation within a specific cultural environment. According to Thomas et al. The cultural orientation systems are formed in a society and passed on from generation to generation. Consequently, culture may, if it is considered as an orientation system, provide a framework that helps society members to structure their behavioural field and enables them to find independent ways of coping with their environment.
As cultural orientation systems are specific to a society, the modes of behaviour of people from foreign countries with different sets of cultural rules can only be vaguely anticipated. Cultural standards Cultural orientation systems are operationalised by means of so-called cultural standards. These standards comprise all ways of perception, thought, judgement and actions which are considered normal, generally accepted by, typical of and binding on a certain culture. Standards that meet these requirements are, for example, those which are relevant to human interactions, as they determine percep- tion, assessment and activities.
Cultural standards display themselves at different levels of abstraction. On the highest aggregate level, cultural standards are expressed as general norms and values. On a more specific level, they appear as behavioural guidelines. If deviations beyond certain limits of tolerance occur, disapproval will be generated and sanctions will follow.
The range of validity of different cultural standards varies cross-culturally: Within a cultural framework, standards are not explicitly perceived by society members. It is only through contact with foreign cultures that their existence and their effects become manifest. Determination of cultural standards Cultural standards are empirically derived by researching culturally overlapping situations in two cultures of interest.
Incidents of this kind are perceived as unpleasant, annoying and depressing to the persons involved. They are difficult to cope with and can preoccupy the persons involved for a long period of time. To empirically capture these situ- ations, interviews are used to investigate cross-cultural incidents which the inter- viewees experienced Critical Incident Analysis; Flanagan, After consolidating the individual results, the differences triggering critical inci- dents between cultural orientation systems are elaborated.
For that purpose, research groups for both cultures involved are installed to identify specific behavioural pat- terns and provide explanations for these patterns. For example, to explain behaviour in a Chinese—German culturally overlapping situation, Chinese judges would use Chinese culture standards, whereas Germans would use assumptions of what they perceive to be a Chinese cultural standard.
These judgements are con- trasted in pairs and synthesised in a way that cultural standards emerge. Supported by findings from other disciplines such as philosophy, religious sciences and linguis- tics, core cultural standards are consolidated and their vertical and horizontal inter- relations are elucidated Thomas, a,b. Looking at the typology of culture concepts see Fig.
On the one hand, the concept relies on an interpretative approach by using qualitative interviews. On the other hand, it also draws on positivistic methods, as the data are consolidated by means of quantitative analysis. Examples of cultural standards In the past few years, intensive research was done at the Department of Psy- chology, University of Regensburg, to identify similarities and differences between German and US, Chinese and South Korean cultural standards. It is reported that Germans assess US-Americans as fri- endly, open and amenable, but superficial and unreliable. In contrast, US-Americans who had contact with Germans describe them as reserved, shy and stubborn Thomas, b.
These examples point out that culturally overlapping situations bear a high potential for misunderstandings, insult and emotional stress, which might, for example, put the success of business relations at risk. Contrary cultural standards on how to overcome psychological personal distance to other people may serve to explain these deviating attributions. American cultural standards demand minimising this distance.
Consequently, it is considered an obli- gation to react and to establish contact with every person in the field of vision. In general, openness in peripheral personal matters e. From a Ger- man perspective, peripheral personal matters are hardly enlarged on during first social contacts typical norm: In the following see Table 2 , central cultural standards in the US and Germany are outlined, which were empirically derived. From a European perspective, this cultural standard is difficult to understand in its variety and consequences.
It is a typically Chinese culture-specific phenomenon that also exists in Germany, but plays only an inferior and less differentiated role. This has led Thomas to pro- pound the following findings for German—Chinese interactions: It also allows managers engaged in culturally overlapping situations to adapt better to the specific demands of these situations.
As a result, training material for cultural orientation trainings has been developed which is based on the concept of cultural standards. Application of the concept of cultural standards in education and training programmes The data which are collected during the interviews contain a large number of exemplary situational descriptions i. Therefore, they can be drawn on as a starting point for the development of relevant training programmes. The so-called cultural assimilator programmes are based on the idea that interaction partners understand and react more efficiently in interactive processes if these pro- cesses make sense to them.
In the German-speaking area, some assimilator programmes that are based on the concept of cultural standards are already available. Thomas reports on the development of a programme for interacting with Chinese people in a business con- text. Each alternative proposed is accompanied by explanatory comments of why the solution chosen is right or wrong. By means of representative and illustrative examples and built-in learning loops, the trainees get an opportunity to acquire knowledge of cul- tural standards and their implications for everyday life in culturally overlapping situ- ations.
In line with the holistic view of cultural competence, the training materials allow for not only a cognitive but also an emotional analysis of a target culture. During the process of establishing cultural standards, it encompasses the conative skills dimension by drawing on particular skills which worked well or failed in a critical incident.
Knowledge cognitive dimension is created as the training draws on inter- active situations such as negotiations, marketing activities, everyday situations, etc. In this way they may learn about cultural universalities and specifics between the home and the target culture. Finally and foremost, the concept of cultural standards places a strong emphasis on the affective dimension. This may eventually even lead to positive attitudes towards foreign culture, increased acceptance of local norms and a reduction in emotional barriers Lange, Limitations and outlook for future research These remarks are by no means supposed to give the impression that the concept of cultural standards is the only approach that can be applied in the development of culture-sensitive marketing.
As it has not yet been subject to extensive research, weaknesses in the concept have to be put into perspective. Despite its inherent practicability and its imminent applicability to international marketing training, this concept has weaknesses. Although it was developed out of practical experiences in intercul- tural communications research, it may not be considered atheoretic due to its scien- tific background in social psychology and communication sciences.
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However, from an anthropological and culture-sociological perspective, the highly extensive concept of culture falls short of theoretical foundation. Besides, it still remains unclear what kinds of inter- relationships between cultural standards exist and how they are weighted and hier- archically structured. This implies that, at present, no definitive findings as to the singular importance, the extent of overlapping and the central significance of single cultural standards have been established.
Another issue which requires further consideration are the variances within a cul- ture which may have an impact on the stability of cultural standards. Variables such as age or gender may interfere with uniform cultural standards within a national context. Some countries are also culturally more heterogeneous e. The influence of these variations has not yet been investigated and is thus not reflected in the training material. In a business context, limits regarding the concept of cultural standards also come to the fore due to its bicultural focus.
As data are only gathered in a specific context, such as in a business environment, an additional limitation to their application prevails. So far there has been no evidence of whether cultural standards identified in a specific context are applicable across different social environments. In other words, it still remains unclear whether findings obtained in a student exchange programme, among managers or development aid workers are equally relevant or valid. The time dimension and its potential influence on the concept of cultural standards is another aspect which has not been dealt with so far.
The concept of cultural standards lends itself well to examining initial interactions between individuals. However, to what extent individual perspectives change, as interactions take place over time and relationships develop, still remains to be clarified. Notwithstanding the above limitations, the research avenues which are provided are likely to overcome the deficits due to the inherent potential of this concept.
Based on our own experiences with the training material and the reactions of trainees who have worked with it, we believe that the concept of cultural standards is superior to other theoretical concepts and especially suitable for the development of culture- sensitive marketing. International dimensions of organizational behavior 3rd ed. South- Western College Publ. Culture and other explanatory variables in comparative manage- ment studies.
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