Katherine A. Tamminen and Courtney Braun
Please double check your mobile number and click on "Send Verification Code". Enter the code below and hit Verify. Free Shipping All orders of Don't have an account? Update your profile Let us wish you a happy birthday! Make sure to buy your groceries and daily needs Buy Now. Let us wish you a happy birthday!
Follow the Author
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Year Please fill in a complete birthday Enter a valid birthday. Skin care Face Body. Maturational and socialization processes [ 15 , 16 ] occurring over the course of adolescence, may better equip individuals to address their discomfort with romantic closeness. For example, better socio-cognitive skills such as attention focusing, abstract thinking, social reasoning, and advanced thought processing may lead to a reduction in the manifestation of ARA tendencies.
Furthermore, avoidant attachment has been linked with the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system, which undergo significant developmental changes during adolescence and underlie reactions to discomfort and withdrawal from situations, such as those that romantic avoidance might involve [ 17 — 19 ]. Based on the above literature, it is thus likely, that ARA severity may gradually decrease due to the psychological and biological maturation processes involved during the period of late adolescence.
In that line, although recent findings indicate a relative stability of attachment styles over adolescence, they contend that individuals who are not exposed to significant risk factors increase their levels of attachment security between 16 and 18 years [ 20 , 21 ]. Accounting for different cultural effects on the development progress over time of romantic attachment is also of particular interest especially in under studied cultural populations [ 1 ]. In the present study, age-related effects on ARA severity are studied in a normative sample of Greek adolescents.
Given the dearth of ARA related studies in Greece, Greek adolescents comprise a significant, from a developmental perspective [ 1 ], and concurrently understudied, from a cultural perspective, population [ 9 , 22 , 23 ]. At the same time, empirical evidence has suggested that Greek youth approach close relationships in a manner that differs, for example, from this of American youth [ 9 , 24 , 25 ]. Whilst age related changes may be linked with intra-individual variations in ARA, gender has also been associated with ARA behaviours. This argument has also been reinforced by cross-sectional empirical findings [ 14 , 25 ].
More recently, gender differences regarding ARA have been associated with specific behavioural facets which appear to be higher in males. Furthermore, it has been illustrated that gender differences in ARA may vary over the lifespan [ 14 ]. Specifically, gender differences in ARA have been said to increase between 20 and 40 years of age, especially for males, and could diminish in contexts where the reproductive interests of males and females converge [ 14 ].
Additionally, gender differences in romantic attachment have been shown to decrease in student samples which may be attributed to social compliance effects [ 14 ]. The developmental period during which gender related differences in regard to ARA emerge is unclear, as is whether they are consistent across different cultural populations. Implementing longitudinal research to clarify this point is needed.
This is additionally reinforced by findings that suggest gender related variations in facets of ARA across different cultural samples [ 28 ]. In particular, cross-sectional findings from cross-cultural studies indicate that Greek samples, in contrast to national samples of several other countries including Canada, USA, Chile, Argentina, the Netherlands, and the UK, do not present significant gender differences in relation to romantic attachment [ 25 ]. This could be a result of aspects involving the strong collectivistic and family orientation of the Greek culture, which may overwrite gender differences in ARA tendencies [ 27 — 29 ].
On top of age-, and gender-related influences on romantic attachment, there is strong evidence supporting the importance of involvement in romantic relationships during adolescence [ 1 , 30 ]. In contrast, other studies demonstrate that the engagement in romantic relationships in adolescence may be associated with higher delinquent behaviours, signs of depression, and suicidal behaviour [ 33 , 34 ].
Overall, researchers conclude that engagement in a romantic relationship in adolescence can function both as a risk and as an opportunity depending on the qualities of the romantic interaction [ 35 ]. Considering the influences of romantic involvement on ARA in particular, studies have supported that negative past experiences of romantic relationships may shape internal representations and perceptions of relationships which could later induce ARA [ 36 ].
Stress, coping, and relationships in adolescence - Ghent University Library
In line with these findings, it was revealed that the impact of a negative previous relationship is the most common reason for exhibiting ARA behaviours [ 37 ]. However, the association between ARA tendencies and involvement in romantic relationships appears to be bidirectional with research confirming the effect of ARA tendencies on both the engagement and the quality of romantic relationships over the life span [ 4 , 38 ]. Despite these findings, there is a paucity of longitudinal studies examining the potential protective effects of lengthier, more committed and of a particular intensity experiences of romantic relationships on ARA tendencies.
This is important given that romantic relationship quality in late adolescence predicts romantic relationship quality in emerging adulthood [ 39 ]. This expectation appears to be in consensus with recent findings which support the prototype hypothesis and the relative stability of attachment styles over adolescence and adulthood [ 20 ]. The present study aims to contribute to the existing knowledge by examining the potential effect of the experience of more stable and lengthy romantic relationships on ARA tendencies during late adolescence.
In conjunction with the age related and individual e. The Internet has been shown to be used by adolescents to address several developmental tasks including identity development, nurturing of friendship networks as well as their romantic relationships [ 41 ]. Despite the general agreement considering the increased influence of the Internet in the romantic life of adolescents, there have been inconsistent findings regarding whether its contribution is negative or positive [ 42 — 44 ]. Other research findings have suggested that Internet use is associated with impulsive and risky sexual behaviour among both adolescents and young adults i.
Two different theoretical hypotheses may explain these contradictory findings. Cyber-relationships, over both adolescence and adulthood, eliminate the risks of face-to-face FtF closeness, thus providing a safer place for romantic experimentation, which may encourage avoidance [ 48 ]. EIU may therefore reinforce avoidance and loneliness in offline relationships across both adolescents and adults, since users progressively become more dependent on the flexibility and convenience of cyber-interactions, that may involve anonymous, accessible and affordable interactions, without developing the FtF social skills required for romantic intimacy in real life [ 48 , 51 ].
These behavioural patterns initiate as conditional adaptations that become more permanent the longer the person, irrespective of age, is exposed to the effects of a specific context -in this case the internet context [ 52 , 53 ]. Accordingly, one could assume that EIU may negatively influence ARA tendencies among adolescents, fostering fear of closeness and withdrawal from offline romantic interactions [ 51 ].
- Foxy Lady.
- Impossible to Forgive?;
- Living in Death: A comparative critique on the death poetry of Emily Dickinson and T.S. Eliot;
- SearchWorks Catalog.
- Der Ahnhof: Ein Allgäu-Krimi (Ein Robert-Walcher-Krimi 7) (German Edition).
- THE CLASS OF 63.
This is further reinforced by evidence indicating that higher Internet use in adolescence is associated with the initiation of sexual activity prior to the involvement in a romantic relationship [ 52 ], which interestingly has been linked to ARA tendencies in young adulthood [ 14 ]. However, the current body of literature has approached the association between EIU and ARA in the opposite way, and has specifically illustrated the causal contribution of avoidant tendencies in the development of EIU across a range of adolescent and adult samples [ 54 , 55 ].
Not surprisingly, adolescent EIU has been suggested to potentially function as a form of avoidant coping to address interpersonally stressful situations [ 56 ]. Furthermore, avoidant adolescents have been assumed to use the internet as a way to cope with developmental challenges, such as engaging in real-life romantic relationships [ 48 , 57 ].
In this context, the present study aims to contribute to extant knowledge on the topic by longitudinally examining the potential risk effect of EIU on ARA during the period of late adolescence. This study adopted a dimensional continuum of minimum to maximum conceptualization of ARA [ 58 ] that is different from the older typological approach which suggested the assignment of individuals to distinct attachment categories [ 59 ].
This enabled the examination of the whole spectrum of variations of ARA manifestations [ 60 ] and is supported by empirical findings indicating a wide range of severity of ARA tendencies [ 14 ]. This dimensional approach on attachment has been widely followed by international researchers and its measurements have been validated in Greek populations, such as the sample used in the present study [ 14 , 27 , 61 ]. To study the whole range of variations of ARA tendencies, theoretical elements of the risk and resilience developmental framework [ 62 ] were integrated with concepts and findings of the field of romantic attachment studies [ 1 , 14 , 28 , 63 — 65 ].
The risk and resilience theoretical framework perceives behaviours i. ARA as constantly varying on a continuum because of the interplay of age, individual and contextual risks and resources [ 62 ]. Thus, the risk and resilience framework theoretically integrates the independent variables of the current work.
Subsequently, the present research model is person focused in a way that captivates diverse and subtle trajectories in ARA development during late adolescence. Such findings could inform the guidelines for more effective prevention and intervention initiatives considering ARA behaviours during adolescence. Accordingly, the present longitudinal study examined a sample of Greek adolescents assessed at 16 and again at 18 years of age to determine the effects of individual level risks and resources in regard to intra-individual and inter-individual variations of ARA tendencies.
Three levels of analysis were applied: Level 1 was used for the temporal factors i. Based on relevant literature, the following specific research hypotheses were examined:. ARA will decrease between 16 and 18 years and this may not differentiate across genders. Maturational, physiological and socialization processes unfolding during adolescence [ 15 , 16 , 68 ], would enable individuals to become gradually better at coping with their romantic closeness stressors reducing ARA tendencies severity.
Furthermore, effects related to the strong collectivistic and family orientation which is intertwined with a highly-committed perception of romantic relationships of the Greek culture may potentially overwrite gender differences in ARA tendencies [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. This is in consensus with previous studies which have suggested that gender specific ARA variations tend to decrease in contexts where the reproductive interests of males and females converge [ 14 , 28 ].
It is hypothesized that involvement in a romantic relationship will be related to lower ARA tendencies [ 1 ]. EIU may negatively influence ARA tendencies among adolescents, reinforcing fear of closeness and withdrawal from offline romantic interactions [ 48 ]. This is further supported by evidence that higher internet use is associated with the initiation of sexual activity prior to the involvement in a romantic relationship [ 42 ], which has been linked to ARA tendencies [ 14 ]. The sample was selected from the Athens metropolitan area and a specific regional area using the method of randomized stratified selection based on the latest inventory card of the Ministry of Education The ratios of high schools and students were identified: Based on these quotas participants were randomly by lottery selected at the classroom level.
The sample consisted of Greek students embedded in 33 classrooms. All participants in the study had internet access at time point 1 and participants The estimated maximum sampling error with a size of is 4. Participants were assessed twice, two school years apart, and their responses were matched with a unique code Wave 1: Results confirmed that attrition did not have any significant effects Table 2. Attrition refers to participants who did not complete two measurements.
It consists of 36 self-report items that comprise two subscales, anxiety and avoidance, of 18 items each. The scores of all items are accumulated and the higher final score indicates stronger ARA tendencies. The ECR-R has been adapted in Greek and has been shown to have good psychometric properties [ 26 , 61 ]. This scale has been validated in a sample of Greek adolescents [ 72 ].
Stress, Coping, and Relationships in Adolescence
The item scores are accumulated 0— and the higher final score indicates stronger EIU behaviours. Participants were asked whether they were currently involved in a committed romantic relationship for more than three months. Following the definition of previous researchers [ 1 ], romantic relationships were described in this item as any kind of ongoing voluntary interaction that entailed a romantic commitment of particular intensity between two individuals of the same or the opposite sex e. Such relationships were identified by expressions of affection and current or anticipated sexual behaviour e.
It is noted that the ethics approval received did not enable the use of a more specific romantic relationship scale. The process of data collection was identical between the two time points. Multilevel modelling was used to statistically analyse a data structure where measurements at two time points level-1 were nested within individuals level-2 , who were nested within classrooms level 3. This approach was chosen to enable us to disentangle and examine age related changes on ARA tendencies at level 1 and the effects of the two individual risks i.
Similarly, latent growth modelling LGM was not chosen as it assumes that level-1 predictors with random effects have the same distribution across all participants in each subpopulation-while HLM allows different distributions [ 76 ]. Subsequently, the HLM 6. ARA symptoms level-1 outcome variable were predicted for each individual at Level 1 by wave in the study. The individual initial level and the individual linear change over the two assessments slope were predicted at Level 2 by gender, involvement in a romantic relationship and EIU scores.
It is noted that the last two variables varied across the period examined. However, given the emphasis of the present study on predictors of ARA tendencies, only time point one values were used as predictors on level 2. Level 1 was not an option given that wave was inserted as a level 1 variable and the HLM software can exclusively examine cross-level interactions [ 76 ].
This choice was based on recommendations that causal associations should be best addressed longitudinally [ 78 ]. To avoid co-linearity independent variables were inserted separately at level 2 see S1 Table.
- Playing St. Barbara?
- Stress, coping, and relationships in adolescence.
- Stress, Coping, and Relationships in Adolescence - CRC Press Book!
- Stress, Coping, and Relationships in Adolescence (Research Monographs in Adolescence Series).
- Stress, coping, and relationships in adolescence in SearchWorks catalog;
- The Urban Prophet.
- Legacy of Shame and the Addictive Process.
- In This Article.
- ;
- Reaching Your Dream: Seeds of Greatness, Splendor, and Magnificence (He Will Be Called Wonderful Book 2).
- Proceedings of the Symposium of the International Society for Corneal Research, Kyoto, May 12–13, 1978 (Documenta Ophthalmologica Proceedings Series).
- The Best Jokes Ever! - Vol. 1.
- The Language of Leaders: How Top CEOs Communicate to Inspire, Influence and Achieve Results?
Finally, the random effects due to the classrooms of the participants were controlled through random effects equations at level 3 in regard to both the main effects of time, as well as the cross-level interactions slopes. The decision to control and not examine level 3 effects was based on two reasons: To control for misspecification i.
Associated Data
At this point it should be noted that random effects calculated at the second and the third level may partially account for demographic individual and group characteristics not included as fixed effects in the present analyses to the extent that the latter are reflected by the nesting of the data. Further, ARA correlations with gender and engagement in a romantic relationship at the two time points were assessed see Table 3. Whereas missing values do not present a problem at level 1 measurements within individuals and did not occur at level 3 classroom which was controlled, they had to be addressed at level 2.
Given that missing values were unsystematic and to avoid listwise deletion, multiple imputation was applied five Maximum Likelihood imputations using SPSS using all available Level 2 individual variables. This type of imputation was selected as it outperforms list-wise deletion for parameters involving many recouped cases and results to better standard error estimates [ 79 , 80 ].
Therefore, all equations were calculated five times, and the results were averaged in accordance with previous work [ 81 ]. However, given that the results did not significantly differ, only the findings of the final models are reported here. The Level 1 intercept for the cross-sectional findings was 3.
This indicated that the average ARA score decreased to 3. Consequently, the average ARA score of adolescents who were involved in a romantic relationship was lower at the age of It should be noted that the latter does not indicate that the association between engagement in a romantic relationship at the age of 16 and ARA tendencies at the age of 18 is insignificant. The finding indicates that the intensity of this association does not significantly differ from that of the association between engagement in a romantic relationship at the age of 16 and ARA tendencies at the same time see Fig 1.
This reveals that the magnitude of the association between EIU at time point 1 and ARA tendencies at time point 2 does not significantly differ from that of the association between EIU at time point 1 and ARA tendencies at time point 1. The table summarizes the main results regarding the individual factors examined and is divided into two parts. The upper part presents the cross-sectional findings after controlling for random effects at Levels 2 individual and 3 classroom.
The lower part presents the over-time change results after controlling for random effects at Levels 2 individual and 3 classroom. In the present study an integrative, multilevel approach that combined the attachment literature and the risk and resilience framework was adopted to examine the longitudinal variations in ARA severity in a normative sample of Greek adolescents assessed longitudinally at 16 and 18 years of age.
Specifically, the aim was to examine age-related change in ARA behaviours between 16 and 18 years taking into consideration the effects of individual level risks and resources, while controlling for other clustering individual and classroom effects. This integrative framework was operationalized via a multi-level hierarchical linear model. The model was composed of three levels: Random effects due to the clustering of the participants were controlled at levels 2 and 3. ARA decreased between 16 and 18 years.
Furthermore, adolescents reporting involvement in a committed romantic relationship were significantly lower on ARA at the age of 16 years and this association did not significantly vary over time. Students at age 16 reporting higher EIU behaviours presented with higher ARA tendencies and this effect was not significantly moderated by age. Finally, gender was not found to differentiate ARA scores neither at the age of 16 nor over time. Previous cross-sectional findings based on comparisons of different age groups have contended that ARA severity varies over the life course, with a tendency to increase after the age of 20, in particular in males, and to stabilize sometime after the age of 40 [ 14 ].
Our finding appears to be in consensus with previous studies that have found fluctuations of the severity of ARA tendencies over time, as well as a tendency of secure attachment to increase for individuals, not exposed to risk factors [ 14 , 20 , 21 ], during late adolescence.
Furthermore, our findings extend previous research by providing knowledge in relation to a culturally under-researched sample of Greek adolescents. The present finding supports that ARA tendencies decrease between 16 and 18 years in a representative sample of adolescents in Greece.
Therefore, one could assume that ARA tendencies may not steadily increase over time, similar to the period between 20 and 40 years of age [ 14 ], but they may rather fluctuate depending on the developmental stage of the individual. This interpretation is consistent with the risk and resilience framework, which assumes that behaviours presenting as problematic, may often have developmental characteristics related to normative changes over the lifespan [ 62 ]. This may reinforce the possibility of a developmental change to lower ARA tendencies during the period of late adolescence [ 3 ].
This potential explanation appears consistent with the effects of cognitive, emotional and identity maturation during late adolescents, that may provide adolescents with the skills needed to feel more comfortable with romantic intimacy [ 1 , 15 , 16 ]. Furthermore, ARA tendencies may tend to fade due to the effects of nervous system maturation, for example, higher sympathetic nervous system reactivity and higher parasympathetic nervous system withdrawal that enrich adolescents with more effective stress coping strategies [ 17 — 19 ].
Nevertheless, the present findings contradict past studies which have revealed a general stability of attachment styles during adolescence in other national samples. This could indicate a culturally specific tendency of ARA behaviours to decrease among adolescents in Greece between 16 and This decrease could be attributed to Greek traditional values favouring stability, as well as the institutions of marriage and family [ 1 , 27 ].
Despite the need for more longitudinal and cross-cultural studies of typical adolescent development between 16 and 18 years, results have direct implications for the planning of prevention and treatment initiatives. The findings of this study did not reveal any gender associated variations in ARA severity between 16 and 18 years in the sample of Greek adolescents examined. This finding appears to contradict previous literature that has found males to report higher ARA behaviours than females [ 14 , 28 ]. However, our results are in line with findings that propose that gender related variations in ARA behaviours appear to be associated with age related changes, as well as cultural dimensions [ 14 , 28 ].
Specifically, past studies have supported that gender differences in romantic attachment attenuate in student samples due to homogeneity reasons such as educational and social compliance effects [ 14 ]. Based on this, there are two explanations that may account for the present finding. First, it may be that gender related differences in ARA emerge later than the age of 18 or that there are cultural effects that minimise such differences in Greek samples in particular.
It is likely that the strong collectivistic and family orientation of the Greek culture weakens gender differences in ARA severity, which is associated with more transient and less committed romantic involvement [ 27 — 29 ]. The latter is reinforced by previous cross-sectional findings from cross-cultural studies, indicating that: Despite these limitations, directions for ARA prevention and treatment are implied. Prevention initiatives may not need to be gender-specific for Greek adolescents during the period between 16 and 18 years. Furthermore, treatment of ARA tendencies among Greek adolescents should embrace cultural elements that emphasize orientation to more committed and stable relationships.
The findings suggested that a concurrent involvement in a committed romantic relationship for more than three months functioned as an ARA resource. This is in line with previous literature supporting the significance of engagement in romantic relationships for adolescents [ 1 , 30 , 32 ]. Furthermore, it is reinforced by research indicating the positive behavioural impact on general adaptation that results from the engagement of adolescents in romantic relationships [ 31 ].
The current findings further compliment recent studies examining involvement in romantic relationships as a factor predicting ARA [ 36 , 37 ]. The experience of a functional romantic relationship may reduce concerns and fears of rejection that cause discomfort and avoidance, contributing to the reduction of ARA tendencies in adolescence. This interpretation is in accordance with studies suggesting that past experiences of romantic relationships define internal representations that could precipitate future romantic behaviour and impact ARA severity [ 36 , 37 ].
Such positive experiences of relationships could be more beneficial between 15 and 18 years of age, when important shifts occur with respect to intimacy and interdependence [ 1 , 3 ]. Nevertheless, the present finding contradicts research supporting that the engagement in romantic relationships in adolescence is associated with rather negative behavioural outcomes which may include higher delinquent behaviours, signs of depression and suicidality [ 33 , 34 ]. This contradiction could be explained by the type of questions asked of the participants. These involved a relationship duration that exceeded three months and a sense of commitment.
Interestingly, past studies have concluded that romantic relationships in adolescence could operate both as risks and as resources based on qualities such as time length and commitment of the romantic interaction that the adolescents engage in [ 35 ]. This finding expands the existing knowledge in the field by highlighting the positive effect of involvement in romantic relationships at the age of 16 on ARA tendencies.
In particular, in line with existing practices, ARA prevention programs in adolescence could benefit from embracing attachment oriented tasks that emphasize on the significance of romantic relationships and the development of romantic relational strategies [ 82 ]. These could be achieved through the implementation of behavioural observation, reflection, role playing and role modelling techniques [ 82 ].
In that context, the introduction of alternative romantic expectations, along with the exposure to material that may confront established romantic beliefs may generate the opportunity for personal re-evaluation and change [ 82 ]. EIU behaviour was found to be an ARA risk at 16 years and the strength of this association did not change over time.
This finding is in accordance with previous studies highlighting the significant impact of internet use on several developmental milestones in adolescence, including romantic development [ 43 ]. Accordingly, it adds to literature highlighting how the use of social networking sites might be compensating for social skills difficulties related to face to face communication [ 83 — 85 ] by paradoxically enabling individuals to experience closeness whilst being distant [ 86 ].
In that context, the present study further highlights the links between avoidant tendencies and EIU in particular [ 49 — 51 ]. Finally, it potentially aligns with available knowledge considering how internet use could compromise sexual and romantic development in adolescence [ 45 , 46 ]. A potential interpretation of this finding could be that adolescents with EIU behaviours progressively become more dependent on the flexibility and convenience of cyber-interactions factors such as anonymity, accessibility, affordability, and without cultivating the face to face social skills that may enable them to feel more comfortable with romantic intimacy in real life and therefore, present higher ARA tendencies [ 48 , 55 ].
This explanation is reinforced by studies contending that behaviours are calibrated by functionality requirements according to the contextual conditions which tend to be more convenient in the internet context [ 14 , 57 ]. Accordingly, EIU may negatively influence ARA tendencies among adolescents, fostering fear of closeness and withdrawal from offline romantic interactions as ways of addressing the challenges of real-life romantic relationships [ 48 , 54 ].
Furthermore, it needs to be noted that the present finding refers to the effect of EIU behaviours on ARA severity and not the effect of internet use in general. In that context, research has suggested potential favourable effects of internet use [ 43 , 44 ]. EIU behaviours are intertwined with psychopathological symptoms and disadvantages or delays in regard to the achievement of developmental tasks [ 50 ]. Overall, the present finding contributes to the extant knowledge on the topic by revealing the risk effect of EIU on ARA severity during the period of late adolescence.
Although further longitudinal and cross-cultural studies are required to support these explanations, directions for ARA prevention and treatment are implied. Prevention initiatives should consider Internet use behaviours and emphasize the higher risk of adolescents presenting with EIU behaviours. For individuals presenting with EIU in particular, treatment of ARA tendencies should target internet overuse, decreasing FtF relationship avoidance, especially during the transitional time between adolescence and young adulthood.
Our measurements were based on self-report questionnaires. Furthermore, beside its factual quality, its compliance with the ethical approval provided by the Greek ministry of education and its consensus with previous theoretical definitions [ 1 ], romantic relationship involvement was assessed with a binary question.
This may not have provided the chance for a wider range of answers and variations to be recorded. Similarly, considering the measurement section, it is likely that partner identification may have impacted the validity of ECR-R scores for adolescents without previous experience in romantic partnerships. Moreover, significant changes to the frequency, the accessibility, and the patterns of Internet use during adolescence may have occurred since and that the data was collected. Specifically, it should be highlighted that smart phones have become more common place enabling easier adolescent Internet access, and potentially without parental permission.
In that context, the IAT items created in may not accurately represent current Internet use. The above sampling and measuring restrictions introduce caution to the usability of the findings and illustrate the need for future investigation. In addition, our sample comes from the Greek cultural context and was measured only twice within a very specific although critical developmental period. Therefore, findings cannot be generalized across the lifespan or across different cultures.
In that line, the present study emphasized exclusively the causative effect of EIU on ARA behaviours, while this association presents to have been bi-directional [ 54 — 56 ]. Subsequently, relevant considerations need to be taken into account when interpreting the relationship between the two behaviours. Finally, effects of demographic characteristics were not directly controlled in the analyses conducted. Despite these limitations, our study has several significant strengths. The present study has implications for prevention and intervention initiatives in relation to the romantic development of adolescents and further research.
Interestingly, and in contrast with past literature [ 14 , 28 ], no gender associated variations in ARA severity were revealed. Given the specific age and cultural aspects of the present sample, the need for further research considering the potential effects of age related changes and cultural dimensions [ 14 , 28 ] in ARA behaviours is illustrated. Similarly, the need of cross-lagged analyses studies to clearer describe the bi-directional association between ARA and EIU behaviours is underpinned by the present findings. In terms of treating ARA risk in adolescence, it appears that initiatives should focus on individuals who are not involved in romantic relationships and present EIU behaviours, especially if ARA severity persists after the age of 18 years.
Interestingly, interventions should include equipping adolescents with FtF communication skills that would reduce the need for online avoidant tendencies and amplify romantic involvement. Specifically, to help adolescents revise their potentially ARA related dysfunctional IWMs of romantic relationships, therapeutic conversations at the individual or group level could be utilized. These initiatives are particularly important in the light of the well-established negative associations between ARA tendencies and general satisfaction, connectedness, and general support in relationships [ 4 ].
Finally, the present study suggests that ARA tendencies in adolescence could constitute a transient developmental behaviour and should not be viewed as pathological. In that context, the results address and simultaneously reinforce previous research recommendations that support the need of adopting a longitudinal and contextualized approach when studying romantic development in adolescence, and aim to treat less desirable romantic attachment behaviours [ 1 , 3 , 14 , 28 ].
This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors. Informed consent was obtained from all the parents and the guardians of the adolescents participating in the study, as well as the individual participants themselves. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Jul Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Received May 3; Accepted Jul This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Specification of the multilevel analyses for the three research hypotheses. Abstract Romantic development is a distinctive characteristic of puberty.