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Canguilhem, La connaissance de la vie , Paris: Identification of learning obstacles. Historical analysis of Portuguese primary school textbooks on the topic of digestion. International Journal of Science Education , vol. Science Education International, vol. Genetic determinism is school textbooks: L a transposition didactique. Remarques sur la formation. Le concept de cellule: La biologie et sa didactique. Dix ans de recherches. From the collection of data on the brain to the analyse of conceptions. La recherche en didactique de la biologie. In Didactique de la biologie: Didactique de la biologie: Situated conceptions and obstacles.
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The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked the Huns' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows "like rain". After the battle was won, Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia. The late 5th century Brittonic leader Riothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman jurist Sidonius Apollinaris and was called "King of the Britons" by Jordanes.
Some suggest that he was a Breton, though others believe that he was from Britain, pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges "by way of Ocean", which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton. In response to a plea from the Roman Emperor Anthemius , Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish a military presence in Bourges in central Gaul, but was betrayed by Arvandus , the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and subsequently ambushed by Euric's army.
According to Breton king-lists, Riotham survived and reigned as Prince of Domnonia until his death sometime between and , though this may have been a different person. These realms eventually merged into a single state during the 9th century. His son Erispoe secured the independence of the new kingdom of Brittany and won the Battle of Jengland against Charles the Bald. The Bretons won another war in , and the kingdom reached then its maximum extent: Brittany was heavily attacked by the Vikings at the beginning of the 10th century.
The kingdom lost its eastern territories, including Normandy and Anjou , and the county of Nantes was given to Fulk I of Anjou in Several Breton lords helped William the Conqueror to invade England and received large estates there e. William's double-second cousin Alan Rufus and the latter's brother Brian of Brittany. Some of these lords were powerful rivals. Medieval Brittany was far from being a united nation. The French king maintained envoys in Brittany, alliances contracted by local lords often overlapped and there was no specific Breton consciousness.
For example, Brittany replaced Latin with French as its official language in the 13th century, years before France did so itself, and the Breton language never had any formal status. The foreign policy of the duchy changed many times; the dukes were usually independent but they often contracted alliances with England or France.
Their support for each nation became very important during the 14th century, because the English kings then started to claim the French throne. The Montforts won in and enjoyed a period of total independence until the end of the Hundred Years' War, because France was weakened and stopped sending royal envoys to the Court of Brittany. However, Brittany lost the Mad War against France in , mostly because of its internal divisions which were exacerbated by the corruption at the court of Francis II, Duke of Brittany.
Indeed, some Breton lords were fighting on the French side. Nonetheless, she married the Holy Roman Emperor in , but this led to a severe crisis with France. He eventually married Anne of Brittany. After he died childless, the duchess had to marry his heir and cousin Louis XII. Anne unsuccessfully tried to preserve Breton independence, but she died in and the union between the two crowns was formally carried out by Francis I in He granted several privileges to Brittany, such as exemption from the gabelle , a tax on salt which was very unpopular in France.
From the 15th to the 18th century, Brittany reached an economic golden age. Local seaports like Brest and Saint-Brieuc quickly expanded, and Lorient , first spelled "L'Orient", was founded in the 17th century. Saint-Malo was then known for its corsairs , Brest was a major base for the French Navy and Nantes flourished with the Atlantic slave trade. On its side, the inland provided hemp ropes and canvas and linen sheets. However, Colbertism , which encouraged the creation of many factories, did not favour the Breton industry because most of the royal factories were opened in other provinces.
Moreover, several conflicts between France and England led the latter to restrain its trade, and the Breton economy went into recession during the 18th century.
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Two significant revolts occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries: Both arose from attempts to resist centralisation and assert Breton constitutional exceptions to tax. The Duchy was legally abolished during the French Revolution , in , and divided into five departments. Brittany also lost all its privileges. Three years later, the area became a centre of royalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution during the Chouannerie. During the 19th century, Brittany remained in economic recession, and many Bretons emigrated to other French regions, particularly to Paris.
This trend remained strong until the beginning of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the region was also modernising, with new roads and railways being built, and some places being industrialised. Nantes specialised in shipbuilding and food processing sugar, exotic fruits and vegetables, fish The region remained deeply Catholic, and during the Second Empire , the conservative values were strongly reasserted. When the Republic was re-established in , there were rumours that Breton troops were mistrusted and mistreated at Camp Conlie during the Franco-Prussian War because of fears that they were a threat to the Republic.
During the 19th century, the Breton language started to decline precipitously, mainly because of the Francization policy conducted under the Third Republic. On one hand, children were not allowed to speak Breton at school, and were punished by teachers if they did. Famously, signs in schools read: However, the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century. The Seiz Breur movement, created in , permitted a Breton artistic revival [31] but its ties with Nazism and the collaborationism of the Breton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period.
Brittany lost , men during the First World War. However, the areas around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient only surrendered on 10 and 11 May , several days after the German capitulation. The two port towns had been virtually destroyed by Allied air raids, like Brest and Saint-Malo , and other towns, such as Nantes and Rennes , had also suffered. In , Brittany was legally reconstituted as the Region of Brittany , although the region excluded the ducal capital of Nantes and the surrounding area.
Nevertheless, Brittany retained its cultural distinctiveness, and a new cultural revival emerged during the s and s. Bilingual schools were opened, singers started to write songs in Breton, and ecological catastrophes such as the Amoco Cadiz oil spill or the Erika oil spill and water pollution because of intensive pig farming favoured new movements to protect the natural heritage. They were often called "pays" or "bro" "country" in French and Breton and they also served as fiscal and military districts.
The historical Breton dioceses were:. Brittany has several historical capital cities. When it was an independent duchy, the Estates of Brittany , which can be compared to a parliament, met in various towns: The Court and the government were also very mobile, and each dynasty favoured its own castles and estates.
All these towns except Vannes are located in Upper Brittany , thus not in the Breton speaking area. Among all these towns, only Nantes , Rennes and Vannes , which were the biggest ones, could really pretend to the capital status. The dukes were crowned in Rennes and they had a large castle there; it was however destroyed during the 15th century. Vannes, on its side, was the seat of the Chamber of Accounts and of the Parliament until the union with France. Nantes, nicknamed "the city of the Dukes of Brittany", was also the permanent residence of the last dukes. Nowadays, Rennes is the only official capital of the region of Brittany.
It is also the seat of an ecclesiastical province encompassing Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region. The arrondissements are further divided in cantons , which are themselves made up of one or several communes. For the Breton nationalists, it was an occasion to recreate Brittany as a political and administrative entity, but the new region had to be economically efficient. The French government and local politicians also feared that Nantes , because of its population and its former Breton capital status, would have maintained a harmful competition with Rennes to get the regional institutions and investments.
Several drafts for French regions had been proposed since the s, and the definitive regions were drawn in In , the regions received their present competencies, with an elected regional council. Since then, the region of Brittany has had its own council and administrative bodies. When the region of Brittany was created, several local politicians opposed the exclusion of Loire-Atlantique , and the question still remains. The obstacles to reunification are the same as in Moreover, the Pays de la Loire region could not exist without Loire-Atlantique , because it would lose its political and economic capital.
However, several institutions have backed the reunification, such as the regional council of Brittany since and the Loire-Atlantique council since Some politicians like Jean-Marc Ayrault , the French prime minister and former mayor of Nantes , favour instead the creation of a "Greater West region", which would encompass Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region. Until the end of the 20th century, Brittany had been characterised by a strong Catholic and conservative influence.
Left-wing parties, mainly the Socialist party and the Greens , have become more and more powerful after the s and they have formed a majority in the Regional Council of Brittany since The Loire-Atlantique and Ille-et-Vilaine councils have also been held by the left since On its side, Morbihan remains a right-wing stronghold.
It advocates more autonomy for the region and its positions are very close to the Socialist parties. It also has a strong ecological orientation. The audience of far-right parties is lower in Brittany than in the rest of France. Brittany is the largest French peninsula. It is bordered to the north by the English Channel , to the south by the Bay of Biscay and the waters located between the western coast and Ushant island form the Iroise Sea.
The Breton coast is very indented, with many cliffs, rias and capes. The Gulf of Morbihan is a vast natural harbour with some forty islands that is almost a closed sea. The region is generally hilly because it corresponds to the western end of the Armorican massif , a very old range that also extends in Normandy and the Pays de la Loire region. Because of this continuity, the Breton border with the rest of France is not marked by any strong geographical landmark, apart from the river Couesnon , which separates Brittany from Normandy.
It is closely followed by several neighbouring hills culminating at around m above sea level. Coastal areas are usually named Armor or Arvor "by the sea" in Breton , and the inland is called Argoat "by the forest". The best soils were primitively covered by large forests which had been progressively replaced by bocage during the Middle Ages. The Breton bocage, with its small fields enclosed by thick hedgerows, has almost disappeared since the s to fit the modern agricultural needs and methods, particularly mechanisation.
The southern part emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. At the same time, an intense volcanic activity left large quantities of granite. Between the Cadomian and Hercynian periods, the region was submerged several times and the sea left fossils and sedimentary rocks , mostly schist and sandstone. Because of the absence of limestone , soils in Brittany are usually acid. The Armorican massif straightened and flattened several times during the formation of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Changes in sea levels and climate led to a strong erosion and to the formation of more sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphism is responsible for the distinctive local blue schist and for the rich subsoil of the Groix island , which comprises glaucophane and epidote. During the Quaternary glaciations, Brittany was covered by loess and rivers started to fill the valleys with alluvial deposits. The valleys themselves were a result of a strong tectonic activity between the African and the Eurasian plate. The present Breton landscape did not acquired its final shape before one million years ago.
The Breton subsoil is characterised by a huge amount of fractures that form a large aquifer containing several millions square meters of water. Brittany lies within the north temperate zone. It has a changeable, maritime climate , similar to Cornwall. Rainfall occurs regularly but sunny, cloudless days are also common. The temperature difference between summer and winter is about fifteen degrees, but it varies depending on the proximity of the sea. The weather is generally milder on the seacoast than inland but rainfall occurs with the same intensity on both.
The south coast, between Lorient and Pornic , enjoys more than 2, hours of sunshine per year. Brittany's wildlife is typical of France with several distinctions. On one hand, the region, due to its long coastline, has a rich oceanic fauna, and some birds cannot be seen in other French regions. On the other hand, the species found in the inland are usually common for France, and because Brittany is a peninsula, the number of species is lower in its western extremity than in the eastern part. A variety of seabirds can be seen close to the seaside, which is home to colonies of cormorants , gulls , razorbills , northern gannets , common murres and Atlantic puffins.
Most of these birds breed on isolated islands and rocks and thus are hard to observe. The inland is home to common European species: Like Cornwall , Wales and Ireland, the waters of Brittany attract marine animals including basking sharks , grey seals , leatherback turtles , dolphins, porpoises , jellyfish , crabs and lobsters. Bass is common along the coast, small-spotted catsharks live on the continental shelf , rattails and anglerfish populate the deep waters.
River fish of note include trout , Atlantic salmon , pikes , shades and lampreys. The Breton rivers are also home to beavers and otters and to some invasive American species, such as the coypu which destroys the ecosystem and accelerated the extinction of the European mink.
Among the invertebrates, Brittany is notably home to the escargot de Quimper , the freshwater pearl mussel and the white-clawed crayfish. Today, mammals of note include roe deer , wild boar , foxes, hares and several species of bat.
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Brittany is widely known for the Breton horse , a local breed of draft horse , and for the Brittany gun dog. The region also has its own breeds of cattle, some of which are on the brink of extinction: The Breton forests, dunes, moorlands and marshes are home to several iconic plants, such as endemic cistus , aster and linaria varieties, the horseshoe vetch and the lotus maritimus.
Brittany has the same education system as the rest of France. As in other French regions, formal education before the 19th century was the preserve of the elite. Before , Brittany did not have a university, and Breton students had to go to Angers , Poitiers or Caen. All the traditional disciplines were taught there: During the 17th century, it had around 1, students. It declined during the 18th century, mostly because Nantes was flourishing with the Atlantic slave trade and paid no attention to its cultural institutions. A mayor eventually asked the university to be relocated to Rennes , more devoted to culture and science, and the faculties progressively moved there after Napoleon reorganised the French education system in He created new universities and invented two secondary education institutions: A new University of Rennes was progressively recreated during the 19th century.
In the meantime, several laws were promoted to open schools, notably for girls. Thus, free schools were opened in almost every villages of Brittany. Jules Ferry also promoted education policies establishing French language as the language of the Republic, and mandatory education was a mean to eradicate regional languages and dialects. In Brittany, it was forbidden for the pupils to speak Breton or Gallo , and the two were strongly depreciated. Humiliating practices aimed at stamping out the Breton language and culture prevailed in state schools until the late s.
They have taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school, and they have gained more and more fame owing to their high level of results in school exams. Besides, Brittany, with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region, remains a stronghold for Catholic private education with around 1, schools. Brittany, apart from some areas such as Lorient , Nantes and Saint-Nazaire , has never been heavily industrialised.
Today, fishing and agriculture remain important activities. Brittany has more than 40, agricultural exploitations, mostly oriented towards cattle, pig and poultry breeding, and cereals and vegetables production. The number of exploitations tends to diminish, but as a result, they are merged into very large estates. Neue Kritik der Vernunft 3 vol. Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie oder der Lehre von der Natur des menschlichen Geistes. Wundt and psychology as science: Perspectives on Science , 5 , Ernst Siegfired Mittler und Sohn.
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Psychologie principia statica et mechanica. Zur Lehre von der Beziehungen zwischen Leib und Seele: Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Mathematische-naturwissenschaftliche Classe , 72 , Geschichte der Lehre von der Assoziation der Ideen. Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Archambault, Critique de la raison pure. Anthropologie in pragmatischer hinsicht. Foucault, Anthropologie du point de vue pragmatique. A case study in the sociology of philosophical knowledge. The philosophical development of the conception of psychology in Germany.
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences , 14 , German idealism and the development of psychology in the nineteenth century. Journal of the History of Philosophy , 18 , The historical foundation of Herbart's mathematization of psychology. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences , 16 , The psychology of Jakob Friedrich Fries Its context, nature, and historical significance.
Storia e Critica della Psychologia , 3 , Physische Ursachen des Wahren. Allgemeine Pathologie und Therapie als mechanische Naturwissenschaften. Medizinische Psychologie oder Physiologie der Seele. La fondation de la psychophysique de Fechner: La psychologie de W.
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La psychologie physiologique en Allemagne: La mesure des sensations. Revue Scientifique , 7 , La psychologie allemande contemporaine: Revue Scientifique , 8 , ; Revue Scientifique , 8 , La psychologie scientifique en Allemagne: Revue Scientifique , 9 , ; Revue Philosophique , 1 , La psychologie de Herbart. Revue Philosophique , 2 , La psychologie ethnographique en Allemagne. Revue Philosophique , 6 , Bonnet's Einwirkung auf die deutsche psychologie des voringen Jahrhunderts.
Mind , 13 , ; Herbart compared with English psychology and with Beneke.