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Can computers ever be conscious? What do we mean by subjectivity and the self? Consciousness and Cognition An International Journal provides a forum for a natural-science approach to the issues of consciousness, voluntary control, and self. The field of neurotechnology. Because frankly, no one would've cared. The theory goes that they played off the public's racism to outlaw marijuana, thereby outlawing hemp.
A correct answer that covers some incidental part of the question if the question were taken purely literally, but totally fails to acknowledge the spirit of the question. And no other answers but that one. And through those years, the respondents have been good enough to not lose the forest for the trees. Probably because history is a humanity. But anyway, of course the method by which the American public was convinced to outlaw cannabis was racism.
But why in a less than decade span did public perception cannabis change from a minimum neutral to at most a panacea and miracle fiber to "Mexicans and blacks are gonna rape your wife, sister, mother, and daughter!
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What caused such a sudden and major shift in opinion? Who were pushing for that? One theory is that the paper lobby was threatened by new processes to make hemp paper for cheaper than wood pulp paper. So, through Bill Hearst and Joe Pulitzer, they spread the idea that cannabis called "marijuana" by Hearst to play up xenophobia towards Mexicans in California was causing blacks and Mexicans to rape or seduce white women.
From your answer, we know the "how" is right. And you acknowledge that the paper industry sure did benefit. The question intended by OP, and the one I'm asking directly is, "Is there evidence of a direct link between the paper industry and the yellow journalists whereby the newspapers swayed public opinion against cannabis? Do you mean the timber industry and not the paper industry? The paper industry would benefit from a reduction in material costs. And why would publishers want to maintain a higher cost for their materials?
Publishers want cheap paper. The way I've heard it, the timber industry ran the paper mills. The threat was new processes to make hemp paper that would've made the paper mills unprofitable.
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That sort of vertical integration makes sense, but the threat you describe still doesn't. If using hemp was unprofitable then they would continue using timber. I think you mean that selling timber to the mills at hemp prices would be unprofitable for the timber producer. Wood pulp is made from sawdust which is itself a byproduct of lumber milling. The theory goes that hemp paper threatened to eliminate the profit potential of sawdust which is otherwise mostly useless. It was and is a completely different process to make paper from hemp fiber than wood pulp and paper mills owned by the timber companies would have been unable to complete.
From what I've read online, that was the cause of the sudden rally against cannabis. What I and a lot of us want to know is what if any evidence there is to support that.
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I think you're overstating Americans' positive impressions of marijuana pre and ignoring broader changes happening in American society. Most of what we consider "hard" drugs were effectively outlawed by American attitudes toward recreational drug use hardened throughout the opening decades of the twentieth century a social process I briefly describe in this answer and showboating antinarcotics officials kept them from softening.
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So, no, attitudes did not change that dramatically in less than a decade. It was a much longer and more complex process. As stated above, I have never heard a credible case that the efforts of guys like Hearst and company made any real impact on public opinion regarding marijuana. That's not to say there isn't one, but it would certainly be difficult to convincingly prove. I have read that some historians believe that Hearst, Mellon, and DuPont started a smear campaign to protect their interests in paper, timber, and nylon.
I'm not sure what role Mellon and DuPont could have had besides spending money to lobby but Hearst ran lots of articles that connected pot to violent crime. Right, but, as I stated, there WERE legitimate instances where marijuana was linked to violent crime. Journalists most at least did not just invent their stories out of whole cloth.
Thanks for the link! I was aware the "j" had been used earlier but assumed it became more frequent as the smear campaigns began in earnest. That's absolutely true, but not nearly to a great enough extent for drugs like THC especially at the much, much lower levels found in early 20th century cannabis to turn elated sedative effects into "reefer madness". The importance of preconceptions on experience is primarily a feature of strong psychedelics and hallucinogens. Cannabis has very definite physiological effects which do not resemble "reefer madness" in any way, except perhaps in the possibility of induced paranoia.
You're wildly overstepping Zinberg's research if you try to apply it to the possibility of low-dose cannibinoids causing rage, mindless aggression, or even "irritability" in anything but a rare minority of users. In the link I provided Beach posits that many of the violent cases cited by antinarcotics officials may have been using marijuana to self-medicate for underlying mental disorders.
Part 2: So why aren't we using hemp, then?
Nonetheless, the idea of marijuana-induced hyperactivity maintained some credibility in a society largely ignorant of its effects. I'm gonna add to OP's question. I have heard that the plastics industry were also involved, is there any truth to that claim or is it a similar story to the paper industry?
A publication must, in general, be committing a crime for example, reporters burglarizing someone's office to obtain information about a news item ; violating the law in publishing a particular article or issue printing obscene material, copyright infringement, libel, breaking a non-disclosure agreement ; directly threatening national security; or causing or potentially causing an imminent emergency the " clear and present danger " standard to be ordered stopped or otherwise suppressed, and then usually only the particular offending article or articles in question will be banned, while the newspaper itself is allowed to continue operating and can continue publishing other articles.
Typically, these tend to be politically to the left or far left. More narrowly, in the U. In the period —, a number of these papers grew more militant and began to openly discuss armed revolution against the state, printing manuals for bombing and urging readers to buy guns; but this new trend of the pacifistic underground press toward violent confrontation soon fell silent after the rise and fall of the Weatherman Underground and the tragic shootings at Kent State.
By the end of , with the end of the draft and the winding down of the Vietnam War there was increasingly little reason for the underground press to exist. A number of papers passed out of existence during this time; among the survivors a newer and less polemical view toward middle-class values and working within the system emerged.
The underground press began to evolve into the socially conscious, life-style oriented alternative press that predominates this form of weekly print media in in North America [12].
In , the landmark Supreme Court decision in Miller v. California re-enabled local obscenity prosecutions after a long hiatus. This sounded the death knell for much of the remaining underground press including underground comix , largely by making the local head shops which stocked underground papers and comix in communities around the country more vulnerable to prosecution. The North American countercultural press of the s drew inspiration from predecessors that had begun in the s, such as the Village Voice and Paul Krassner's satirical paper The Realist.
Arguably, the first underground newspaper of the s was the Los Angeles Free Press , founded in and first published under that name in The UPS allowed member papers to freely reprint content from any of the other member papers. By , virtually every sizable city or college town in North America boasted at least one underground newspaper. During the peak years of the underground press phenomenon there were generally about papers currently publishing at any given time.
Historian Laurence Leamer called it "one of the few legendary undergrounds," [18] and, according to John McMillian, it served as a model for many papers that followed. Probably the most graphically innovative of the underground papers was the San Francisco Oracle. These two affiliations with organizations that were often at cross purposes made NOLA Express one of the most radical and controversial publications of the counterculture movement.
All of this controversy helped to increase the readership and bring attention to the political causes that editors Fife and Head supported. Many of the papers faced official harassment on a regular basis; local police repeatedly raided and busted up the offices of Dallas Notes and jailed editor Stoney Burns on drug charges, charged Atlanta's Great Speckled Bird and others with obscenity, arrested street vendors, and pressured local printers not to print underground papers. In an apparent attempt to shut down The Spectator in Bloomington, Indiana, editor James Retherford was briefly imprisoned for alleged violations of the Selective Service laws; his conviction was overturned and the prosecutors were rebuked by a federal judge.
The offices of Houston's Space City! In Houston as in many other cities the attackers, never identified, were suspected of being off-duty military or police personnel, or members of the Ku Klux Klan or Minuteman organizations. In the San Diego Union reported that the attacks in and had been carried out by a right-wing paramilitary group calling itself the Secret Army Organization, which had ties to the local office of the FBI. During this period there was also a widespread high school underground press movement circulating unauthorized student-published tabloids and mimeographed sheets at hundreds of high schools around the US.
Most of these papers put out only a few issues, running off a few hundred copies of each and circulating them only at one local school, although there was one system-wide antiwar high school underground paper produced in New York in with a 10, copy press run. And Houston's Little Red Schoolhouse, a citywide underground paper published by high school students, was founded in These services typically produced a weekly packet of articles and features mailed to subscribing papers around the country; HIPS reported 60 subscribing papers.
The GI underground press in America produced a few hundred titles during the Vietnam War, some produced by antiwar GI coffeehouses, and many of them small, crudely produced, low-circulation mimeographed "zines" written by a draftee editor opposed to the war and circulated locally off-base.
Part1: What's all this fuss about hemp?
Three or four GI underground papers had large-scale, national distribution of more than 20, copies including thousands of copies mailed to GIs overseas. These papers were produced with the support of civilian anti-war activists, and had to be disguised to be sent through the mail into Vietnam, where soldiers distributing or even possessing them might be subject to harassment, disciplinary action or arrest. The idea of smuggling a full size printing press into South Vietnam was mooted but determined to be too dangerous to attempt. As an alternative, a few GIs based in South Vietnam were issued small kits to enable them to produce little hektograph -type zines.
The boom in the underground press was made practical by the availability of cheap offset printing, which made it possible to print a few thousand copies of a small tabloid paper for a couple of hundred dollars, which a sympathetic printer might extend on credit. Paper was cheap, and many printing firms around the country had over-expanded during the s and had excess capacity on their offset web presses, which could be negotiated for at bargain rates. Most papers operated on a shoestring budget, pasting up camera-ready copy on layout sheets on the editor's kitchen table, with labor performed by unpaid, non-union volunteers.
Typesetting costs, which at the time were wiping out many established big city papers, were avoided by typing up copy on a rented or borrowed IBM Selectric typewriter to be pasted up by hand. As one observer commented with only slight hyperbole, students were financing the publication of these papers out of their lunch money.
According to Louis Menand , writing in The New Yorker , the underground press movement in the United States was "one of the most spontaneous and aggressive growths in publishing history. By , many underground papers had folded, at which point the Underground Press Syndicate acknowledged the passing of the undergrounds and renamed itself the Alternative Press Syndicate.
That organization soon collapsed, to be supplanted by the Association of Alternative Newsweeklies. During the s and s, there were also a number of left political periodicals with some of the same concerns of the underground press. Some of these periodicals joined the Underground Press Syndicate to gain services such as microfilming, advertising, and the free exchange of articles and newspapers. Federal Bureau of Investigation FBI conducted surveillance and disruption activities on the underground press in the United States, including a campaign to destroy the alternative agency Liberation News Service.
Many of these organizations consisted of little more than a post office box and a letterhead, designed to enable the FBI to receive exchange copies of underground press publications and send undercover observers to underground press gatherings.