Disadvantages of TBMs arise from their usually large size — the difficulty of transporting the large TBM to the site of tunnel construction, or alternatively the high cost of assembling the TBM on-site, often within the confines of the tunnel being constructed. There are a variety of TBM designs that can operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft water-bearing ground.
Some types of TBMs, the bentonite slurry and earth-pressure balance machines, have pressurised compartments at the front end, allowing them to be used in difficult conditions below the water table. This pressurizes the ground ahead of the TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure. The operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurised compartment, but may occasionally have to enter that compartment to renew or repair the cutters.
This requires special precautions, such as local ground treatment or halting the TBM at a position free from water. The borehole has a diameter of 8. All of these machines were built at least partly by Herrenknecht. Clay-kicking is a specialised method developed in the United Kingdom of digging tunnels in strong clay-based soil structures. Unlike previous manual methods of using mattocks which relied on the soil structure to be hard, clay-kicking was relatively silent and hence did not harm soft clay-based structures.
The clay-kicker lies on a plank at a degree angle away from the working face and inserts a tool with a cup-like rounded end with the feet. Turning the tool manually, the kicker extracts a section of soil, which is then placed on the waste extract. Used in Victorian civil engineering, the method found favour in the renewal of Britain's ancient sewerage systems, by not having to remove all property or infrastructure to create a small tunnel system. The method was virtually silent and so not susceptible to listening methods of detection.
A temporary access shaft is sometimes necessary during the excavation of a tunnel. They are usually circular and go straight down until they reach the level at which the tunnel is going to be built. A shaft normally has concrete walls and is usually built to be permanent. Once the access shafts are complete, TBMs are lowered to the bottom and excavation can start.
Shafts are the main entrance in and out of the tunnel until the project is completed. If a tunnel is going to be long, multiple shafts at various locations may be bored so that entrance to the tunnel is closer to the unexcavated area. Once construction is complete, construction access shafts are often used as ventilation shafts , and may also be used as emergency exits. The New Austrian Tunneling Method NATM was developed in the s and is the best known of a number of engineering practices that use calculated and empirical measurements to provide safe support to the tunnel lining.
The main idea of this method is to use the geological stress of the surrounding rock mass to stabilize the tunnel, by allowing a measured relaxation and stress reassignment into the surrounding rock to prevent full loads becoming imposed on the supports. Based on geotechnical measurements, an optimal cross section is computed. The excavation is protected by a layer of sprayed concrete, commonly referred to as shotcrete. Other support measures can include steel arches, rockbolts and mesh.
Technological developments in sprayed concrete technology have resulted in steel and polypropylene fibres being added to the concrete mix to improve lining strength. This creates a natural load-bearing ring, which minimizes the rock's deformation. By special monitoring the NATM method is flexible, even at surprising changes of the geomechanical rock consistency during the tunneling work.
The measured rock properties lead to appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening. In the last decades also soft ground excavations up to 10 kilometres 6. In pipe jacking , hydraulic jacks are used to push specially made pipes through the ground behind a TBM or shield. This method is commonly used to create tunnels under existing structures, such as roads or railways.
Tunnels constructed by pipe jacking are normally small diameter bores with a maximum size of around 3. Box jacking is similar to pipe jacking, but instead of jacking tubes, a box-shaped tunnel is used. A cutting head is normally used at the front of the box being jacked, and spoil removal is normally by excavator from within the box.
Recent developments of the Jacked Arch and Jacked deck have enabled longer and larger structures to be installed to close accuracy.
The m long 20m clear span underpass below the high speed rail lines at Cliffsend in Kent, UK is an example of this technique [ citation needed ]. Submerged floating tunnels are a novel approach under consideration; however, no such tunnels have been constructed to date. During construction of a tunnel it is often convenient to install a temporary railway, particularly to remove excavated spoil , often narrow gauge so that it can be double track to allow the operation of empty and loaded trains at the same time.
The temporary way is replaced by the permanent way at completion, thus explaining the term "Perway". An open building pit consists of a horizontal and a vertical boundary that keeps groundwater and soil out of the pit. There are several potential alternatives and combinations for horizontal and vertical building pit boundaries. The most important difference with cut-and-cover is that the open building pit is muted after tunnel construction; no roof is placed. In Turkey, the Eurasia Tunnel under the Bosphorus , opened in , has at its core a 5. Although each level offers a physical height of 2.
Each level was built with a three-lane roadway, but only two lanes per level are used — the third serves as a hard shoulder within the tunnel. The A86 Duplex is Europe's longest double-deck tunnel. In Shanghai , China, a 2. In each tube of the Fuxing Road Tunnel both decks are for motor vehicles. In each direction, only cars and taxis travel on the 2. In the Netherlands, a 2. The two lower tubes of the tunnel carry the A2 motorway , which originates in Amsterdam, through the city; and the two upper tubes take the N2 regional highway for local traffic.
The Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel is a bored road tunnel that is under construction since in the city of Seattle in the U.
New York City 's 63rd Street Tunnel under the East River , between the boroughs of Manhattan and Queens , was intended to carry subway trains on the upper level and Long Island Rail Road commuter trains on the lower level. Construction started in , [24] and the two sides of the tunnel were bored through in In the UK, the Queensway Tunnel under the River Mersey between Liverpool and Birkenhead was originally to have road vehicles running on the upper deck and trams on the lower.
During construction the tram usage was cancelled. The lower section is only used for cables, pipes and emergency accident refuge enclosures. Hong Kong's Lion Rock Tunnel , built in the mid s, connecting New Kowloon and Sha Tin , carries a motorway but also serves as an aqueduct , featuring a gallery containing five water mains lines with diameters between 1. Some tunnels have more than one purpose. When necessary, floodwater is first diverted into a separate bypass tunnel located underneath the 2. In this scenario, traffic continues normally. Only during heavy, prolonged rains when the threat of extreme flooding is high, the upper tunnel tube is closed off to vehicles and automated flood control gates are opened so that water can be diverted through both tunnels.
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Common utility ducts or utility tunnels carry two or more utility lines. Through co-location of different utilities in one tunnel, organizations are able to reduce the costs of building and maintaining utilities. Over-bridges can sometimes be built by covering a road or river or railway with brick or steel arches, and then leveling the surface with earth.
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In railway parlance, a surface-level track which has been built or covered over is normally called a "covered way". Snow sheds are a kind of artificial tunnel built to protect a railway from avalanches of snow. Similarly the Stanwell Park , New South Wales "steel tunnel", on the Illawarra railway line , protects the line from rockfalls. Owing to the enclosed space of a tunnel, fires can have very serious effects on users. The main dangers are gas and smoke production, with even low concentrations of carbon monoxide being highly toxic.
Fires killed 11 people in the Gotthard tunnel fire of for example, all of the victims succumbing to smoke and gas inhalation. Over passengers died in the Balvano train disaster in Italy in , when the locomotive halted in a long tunnel. Carbon monoxide poisoning was the main cause of death. In the Caldecott Tunnel fire of , the majority of fatalities were caused by toxic smoke, rather than by the initial crash.
Motor vehicle tunnels usually require ventilation shafts and powered fans to remove toxic exhaust gases during routine operation. Rail tunnels usually require fewer air changes per hour , but still may require forced-air ventilation. Both types of tunnels often have provisions to increase ventilation under emergency conditions, such as a fire.
Although there is a risk of increasing the rate of combustion through increased airflow, the primary focus is on providing breathable air to persons trapped in the tunnel, as well as firefighters. When there is a parallel, separate tunnel available, airtight but unlocked emergency doors are usually provided which allow trapped personnel to escape from a smoke-filled tunnel to the parallel tube.
Larger, heavily used tunnels, such as the Big Dig tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts , may have a dedicated hour manned operations center which monitors and reports on traffic conditions, and responds to emergencies. The earthquake caused extensive damage to various structures including buildings, freeway overpasses and road systems throughout the area. The National Center for Environmental Information estimates total damages to be 40 billion dollars. Metro, the owner of the LA subway system, issued a statement through their engineering staff about the design and consideration that goes into a tunnel system.
Engineers and architects perform extensive analysis as to how hard they expect earthquakes to hit that area. All of this goes into the overall design and flexibility of the tunnel. This same trend of limited subway damage following an earthquake can be seen in many other places. In a magnitude 8. Entry portals sustained minor damages, however these damages were attributed to inadequate earthquake design that originated from the original construction date of Entrance stations to subway systems suffered minor damages, and the subway system was down for the rest of the day.
By the next afternoon, the subway system was operational again. The history of ancient tunnels and tunneling in the world is reviewed in various sources which include many examples of these structures that were built for different purposes. The use of tunnels for mining is called drift mining. Some tunnels are not for transport at all but rather, are fortifications, for example Mittelwerk and Cheyenne Mountain Complex.
Excavation techniques, as well as the construction of underground bunkers and other habitable areas, are often associated with military use during armed conflict , or civilian responses to threat of attack. Another use for tunnels was for the storage of chemical weapons [60] [61] [2].
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Secret tunnels have given entrance to or escape from an area, such as the Cu Chi Tunnels or the smuggling tunnels in the Gaza Strip which connect it to Egypt. Although the Underground Railroad network used to transport escaped slaves was "underground" mostly in the sense of secrecy, hidden tunnels were occasionally used. Secret tunnels were also used during the Cold War , under the Berlin Wall and elsewhere, to smuggle refugees, and for espionage.
Smugglers use secret tunnels to transport or store contraband , such as illegal drugs and weapons. The actual usage of erdstall tunnels is unknown but theories connect it to a rebirth ritual. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. An underground passage made for traffic. This article is about underground passages.
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For other uses, see Tunnel disambiguation. For the John Foxx song, see Underpass song. For a tunnel for pedestrians, see Pedestrian underpass. History of water supply and engineering. This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it.
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History of rapid transit. List of longest tunnels. Tunnel engineering is one of the oldest, most interesting but also challenging engineering disciplines and demands not only theoretical knowledge but also practical experience in geology, geomechanics, structural design, concrete construction, machine technology, construction process technology and construction management.
The two-volume "Handbuch des Tunnel- und Stollenbaus" has been the standard reference for German-speaking tunnellers in theory and practice for 30 years. The new English edition is based on a revised and adapted version of the third German edition and reflects the latest state of knowledge. The book is published in two volumes, with the first being devoted to more practical themes of construction and construction process in drill and blast and mechanised tunnelling.
Microtunnelling and ventilation are also dealt with. All chapters include practical examples. Read more Read less. Kindle Cloud Reader Read instantly in your browser. Editorial Reviews From the Back Cover Tunnel engineering is one of the oldest, most interesting but also challenging engineering disciplines and demands not only theoretical knowledge but also practical experience in geology, geomechanics, structural design, concrete construction, machine technology, construction process technology and construction management. The new English edition is based on a revised and adapted version of the third German edition and refl ects the latest state of knowledge.
The book is published in two volumes, with the fi rst being devoted to more practical themes of construction and construction process in drill and blast and mechanised tunnelling.
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