Labour uses up its material factors, its subject and its instruments, consumes them, and is therefore a process of consumption. Such productive consumption is distinguished from individual consumption by this, that the latter uses up products, as means of subsistence for the living individual; the former, as means whereby alone, labour, the labour-power of the living individual, is enabled to act.
The product, therefore, of individual consumption, is the consumer himself; the result of productive consumption, is a product distinct from the consumer. In so far then, as its instruments and subjects are themselves products, labour consumes products in order to create products, or in other words, consumes one set of products by turning them into means of production for another set.
But, just as in the beginning, the only participators in the labour-process were man and the earth, which latter exists independently of man, so even now we still employ in the process many means of production, provided directly by Nature, that do not represent any combination of natural substances with human labour.
The labour-process, resolved as above into its simple elementary factors, is human action with a view to the production of use-values, appropriation of natural substances to human requirements; it is the necessary condition for effecting exchange of matter between man and Nature; it is the everlasting Nature-imposed condition of human existence, and therefore is independent of every social phase of that existence, or rather, is common to every such phase.
Follow the Author
It was, therefore, not necessary to represent our labourer in connexion with other labourers; man and his labour on one side, Nature and its materials on the other, sufficed. Let us now return to our would-be capitalist. We left him just after he had purchased, in the open market, all the necessary factors of the labour process; its objective factors, the means of production, as well as its subjective factor, labour-power.
With the keen eye of an expert, he has selected the means of production and the kind of labour-power best adapted to his particular trade, be it spinning, bootmaking, or any other kind. He then proceeds to consume the commodity, the labour-power that he has just bought, by causing the labourer, the impersonation of that labour-power, to consume the means of production by his labour.
The general character of the labour-process is evidently not changed by the fact, that the labourer works for the capitalist instead of for himself; moreover, the particular methods and operations employed in bootmaking or spinning are not immediately changed by the intervention of the capitalist. He must begin by taking the labour-power as he finds it in the market, and consequently be satisfied with labour of such a kind as would be found in the period immediately preceding the rise of capitalists.
Changes in the methods of production by the subordination of labour to capital, can take place only at a later period, and therefore will have to be treated of in a later chapter. The labour-process, turned into the process by which the capitalist consumes labour-power, exhibits two characteristic phenomena.
First, the labourer works under the control of the capitalist to whom his labour belongs; the capitalist taking good care that the work is done in a proper manner, and that the means of production are used with intelligence, so that there is no unnecessary waste of raw material, and no wear and tear of the implements beyond what is necessarily caused by the work. Secondly, the product is the property of the capitalist and not that of the labourer, its immediate producer. To the purchaser of a commodity belongs its use, and the seller of labour-power, by giving his labour, does no more, in reality, than part with the use-value that he has sold.
From the instant he steps into the workshop, the use-value of his labour-power, and therefore also its use, which is labour, belongs to the capitalist. By the purchase of labour-power, the capitalist incorporates labour, as a living ferment, with the lifeless constituents of the product. From his point of view, the labour-process is nothing more than the consumption of the commodity purchased, i. The labour-process is a process between things that the capitalist has purchased, things that have become his property. The product of this process belongs, therefore, to him, just as much as does the wine which is the product of a process of fermentation completed in his cellar.
The product appropriated by the capitalist is a use-value, as yarn, for example, or boots. Use-values are only produced by capitalists, because, and in so far as, they are the material substratum, the depositories of exchange-value. Our capitalist has two objects in view: His aim is to produce not only a use-value, but a commodity also; not only use-value, but value; not only value, but at the same time surplus-value.
Frequently bought together
It must be borne in mind, that we are now dealing with the production of commodities, and that, up to this point, we have only considered one aspect of the process. Just as commodities are, at the same time, use-values and values, so the process of producing them must be a labour-process, and at the same time, a process of creating value. We know that the value of each commodity is determined by the quantity of labour expended on and materialised in it, by the working-time necessary, under given social conditions, for its production. This rule also holds good in the case of the product that accrued to our capitalist, as the result of the labour-process carried on for him.
Assuming this product to be 10 lbs. For spinning the yarn, raw material is required; suppose in this case 10 lbs. We have no need at present to investigate the value of this cotton, for our capitalist has, we will assume, bought it at its full value, say of ten shillings. In this price the labour required for the production of the cotton is already expressed in terms of the average labour of society. We will further assume that the wear and tear of the spindle, which, for our present purpose, may represent all other instruments of labour employed, amounts to the value of 2s.
We must not let ourselves be misled by the circumstance that the cotton has taken a new shape while the substance of the spindle has to a certain extent been used up. By the general law of value, if the value of 40 lbs. In the case we are considering the same working-time is materialised in the 10 lbs. Therefore, whether value appears in cotton, in a spindle, or in yarn, makes no difference in the amount of that value. The spindle and cotton, instead of resting quietly side by side, join together in the process, their forms are altered, and they are turned into yarn; but their value is no more affected by this fact than it would be if they had been simply exchanged for their equivalent in yarn.
The labour required for the production of the cotton, the raw material of the yarn, is part of the labour necessary to produce the yarn, and is therefore contained in the yarn. The same applies to the labour embodied in the spindle, without whose wear and tear the cotton could not be spun.
Hence, in determining the value of the yarn, or the labour-time required for its production, all the special processes carried on at various times and in different places, which were necessary, first to produce the cotton and the wasted portion of the spindle, and then with the cotton and spindle to spin the yarn, may together be looked on as different and successive phases of one and the same process. The whole of the labour in the yarn is past labour; and it is a matter of no importance that the operations necessary for the production of its constituent elements were carried on at times which, referred to the present, are more remote than the final operation of spinning.
Therefore the labour contained in the raw material and the instruments of labour can be treated just as if it were labour expended in an earlier stage of the spinning process, before the labour of actual spinning commenced. The values of the means of production, i. Two conditions must nevertheless be fulfilled. First, the cotton and spindle must concur in the production of a use-value; they must in the present case become yarn. Value is independent of the particular use-value by which it is borne, but it must be embodied in a use-value of some kind.
Secondly, the time occupied in the labour of production must not exceed the time really necessary under the given social conditions of the case. Therefore, if no more than 1 lb. Though the capitalist have a hobby, and use a gold instead of a steel spindle, yet the only labour that counts for anything in the value of the yarn is that which would be required to produce a steel spindle, because no more is necessary under the given social conditions. We now know what portion of the value of the yarn is owing to the cotton and the spindle.
The next point for our consideration is, what portion of the value of the yarn is added to the cotton by the labour of the spinner.
Flow Phenomena in Nature Volume 1
We have now to consider this labour under a very different aspect from that which it had during the labour-process; there, we viewed it solely as that particular kind of human activity which changes cotton into yarn; there, the more the labour was suited to the work, the better the yarn, other circumstances remaining the same. The labour of the spinner was then viewed as specifically different from other kinds of productive labour, different on the one hand in its special aim, viz.
For the operation of spinning, cotton and spindles are a necessity, but for making rifled cannon they would be of no use whatever. Here, on the contrary, where we consider the labour of the spinner only so far as it is value-creating, i. It is solely by reason of this identity, that cotton planting, spindle making and spinning, are capable of forming the component parts differing only quantitatively from each other, of one whole, namely, the value of the yarn. Here, we have nothing more to do with the quality, the nature and the specific character of the labour, but merely with its quantity.
And this simply requires to be calculated. We proceed upon the assumption that spinning is simple, unskilled labour, the average labour of a given state of society. Hereafter we shall see that the contrary assumption would make no difference.
While the labourer is at work, his labour constantly undergoes a transformation: We say labour, i. In the process we are now considering it is of extreme importance, that no more time be consumed in the work of transforming the cotton into yarn than is necessary under the given social conditions. If under normal, i.
- Mystic Kingdoms: The Crumbling Towers:Volume I of The Struggle of the Magi.
- Suya, cuerpo y alma - Volumen 5 (Spanish Edition).
- True-Life Adventures - Wikipedia.
- Creating a Responsive Environment for People with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties.
- Ich hab noch nie gewonnen (German Edition)!
- Lust Takes The White House.
Not only the labour, but also the raw material and the product now appear in quite a new light, very different from that in which we viewed them in the labour-process pure and simple. The raw material serves now merely as an absorbent of a definite quantity of labour. By this absorption it is in fact changed into yarn, because it is spun, because labour-power in the form of spinning is added to it; but the product, the yarn, is now nothing more than a measure of the labour absorbed by the cotton.
Definite quantities of product, these quantities being determined by experience, now represent nothing but definite quantities of labour, definite masses of crystallised labour-time. We are here no more concerned about the facts, that the labour is the specific work of spinning, that its subject is cotton and its product yarn, than we are about the fact that the subject itself is already a product and therefore raw material. If the spinner, instead of spinning, were working in a coal mine, the subject of his labour, the coal, would be supplied by Nature; nevertheless, a definite quantity of extracted coal, a hundredweight for example, would represent a definite quantity of absorbed labour.
The same quantity of labour is also embodied in a piece of gold of the value of three shillings. Consequently by the mere labour of spinning, a value of three shillings is added to the cotton. Let us now consider the total value of the product, the 10 lbs. Hence, fifteen shillings is an adequate price for the 10 lbs.
Our capitalist stares in astonishment. The value of the product is exactly equal to the value of the capital advanced. The value so advanced has not expanded, no surplus-value has been created, and consequently money has not been converted into capital. The price of the yarn is fifteen shillings, and fifteen shillings were spent in the open market upon the constituent elements of the product, or, what amounts to the same thing, upon the factors of the labour-process; ten shillings were paid for the cotton, two shillings for the substance of the spindle worn away, and three shillings for the labour-power.
The swollen value of the yarn is of no avail, for it is merely the sum of the values formerly existing in the cotton, the spindle, and the labour-power: There is in reality nothing very strange in this result.
- The Swamp Fox: Lessons in Leadership from the Partisan Campaigns of Francis Marion?
- Navigation menu!
- Customers who bought this item also bought.
- ?
- ;
The value of one pound of yarn being eighteenpence, if our capitalist buys 10 lbs. It is clear that, whether a man buys his house ready built, or gets it built for him, in neither case will the mode of acquisition increase the amount of money laid out on the house. Our capitalist, who is at home in his vulgar economy, exclaims: In future he will buy the commodities in the market, instead of manufacturing them himself. But if all his brother capitalists were to do the same, where would he find his commodities in the market?
And his money he cannot eat. Besides, where nothing is, the king has lost his rights; whatever may be the merit of his abstinence, there is nothing wherewith specially to remunerate it, because the value of the product is merely the sum of the values of the commodities that were thrown into the process of production. Customers who bought this item also bought. Page 1 of 1 Start over Page 1 of 1. Trilogy of Rest, Volume 2. The Trilogy of Rest, Volume 3. The Circle of Total Illumination.
The Life and Teachings of Patrul Rinpoche. Here's how restrictions apply. Trilogy of Rest Book 1 Hardcover: Shambhala December 5, Language: Don't have a Kindle? Try the Kindle edition and experience these great reading features: Share your thoughts with other customers. Write a customer review. Showing of 6 reviews. Top Reviews Most recent Top Reviews.
There was a problem filtering reviews right now. Please try again later. This is Longchenpa's lam-rim gradual stages of the path presentation of the nature of mind from the Nyingma's dzogchen sudden pathless perspective, and as we'd expect, the Padmakara Translation Group does a very fine job with it. Before getting to his comprehensive text they start with a very helpful 29 page introduction where they place the 14th century Longhcenpa in context, giving a brief biography of his life and works that is as historically complete and accurate as the hagiographic record allows.
In the course of describing his life they also give context to the two main streams of dzogchen's innermost pith instructions Vima and Khandro Nyingthigs which he is famous for combining in the Nyingthig Yabzhi. Since there really isn't much that can be said about the essence of dzogchen I find these bits of historical context fascinating. In regards to the ineffable nature of dzogchen the translators make clear earlier in the introduction how the views of the lower 8 yanas - or vehicles of Buddhism - " They are, as philosophical positions, established according to the rational process of the discursive mind It underlies and logically precedes every state of ordinary cognition, and for that very reason it can never itself become the object of such cognition.
And it is this first volume which deals with his explanation of the foundational ground - or foundational view of dzogchen. What follows is a mix of poetry Part One - the root texts - pages and prose Part Two - a partial translation of the immense auto-commentary - pages , which gives a taste of the two sides of Longchenpa's remarkable teachings - direct experiential pith instructions for yogis and erudite explanations for scholars full of copious scriptural passages quoted from memory in his isolated retreat without access to any reference library!
Here are a couple of quotes to show some of these two styles of presentation. Everyone who can read Tibetan and knows of Longchenpa's work always expresses a sense of awe when discussing his poetic ability, like he is on the literary level of a Tibetan Shakespeare or Blake. I can only imagine At least with these translations we get a very readable version; "This is the primordial state, The one and single nature: The dharmakaya where the apprehending subject And the apprehended object are not found And where an unstained luminosity Arises like the essence of the sun.
No center does it have, no limit: Blissful, clear and free from thought. Also this film series was the launching pad for Disney's new distributor, Buena Vista International. TV episodes are from Disney's anthology TV series. In , Disney established a new nature film label called Disneynature.
Thus they are not included on the Legacy DVDs. Films made up of stock footage two or more Disney nature films and thus not listed with respective original film above: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Walt Disney's True-Life Adventures. Retrieved from " https: