Modern India and the Indians: Volume 66 (Trubners Oriental Series)

However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The Maratha—Mysore War ended in April , following the finalizing of treaty of Gajendragad , in which, Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas.

Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam Tipu was killed during the defence of the city.

Much of the remaining Mysorean territory was annexed by the British, the Nizam and the Marathas. The remaining core, around Mysore and Seringapatam , was restored to the Indian prince belonging to the Wodeyar dynasty, whose forefathers had been the actual rulers before Hyder Ali became the de facto ruler. The Kingdom of Mysore became a princely state of British India in Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed.

Hyderabad State became princely state in British India The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal from to , as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in , installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad throne and established itself to a political power in Bengal.

In the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British.

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In , when the Nizamat governorship of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company. In the 18th century the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. In , the British went to war with the Pindaris , raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War , and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. After the fall of the Maratha Empire , many Maratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British, to form the largest bloc of princely states in the British Raj , in terms of territory and population.

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire , Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars , where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces. Early modern Indian traders to West Asia and Eastern Europe were active between the 14th and 18th centuries.

These traders built a Hindu temple , which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century. Further north, the Saurashtra and Bengal coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the Gangetic plains and the Indus valley housed several centres of river-borne commerce.

Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services. In , a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. Goa became the main Portuguese base until it was annexed by India in The next to arrive were the Dutch , with their main base in Ceylon.

They established ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore , during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India. In the words of the noted historian, Professor A. A disaster of the first magnitude for the Dutch, the battle of Colachel shattered for all time their dream of the conquest of Kerala.

The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British —who set up in the west coast port of Surat in —and the French both established trading outposts in India. Opium storehouse in Patna. Gulab Singh , the founder and the first Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.

The two Kangla-Sa Pakhangba dragons standing at the gate were destroyed by the British. This was the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in After the Battle of Buxar in , the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from de jure Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II ; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India.

They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal -like structure in Bengal, often with taluqdars and zamindars set in place. Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first fell to Burmese invasion and then to the British after the Treaty of Yandabo in ; concurrently, the Burmese invasions also lead the Kingdom of Manipur to seek British protectorate in , however, it was after the Anglo-Manipur War of did it become part of the British Empire.

The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after , had caused the Anglo-Nepalese War of —16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In , Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. At the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Richard Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states or native states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.

Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule , taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3. It started from the end of slavery in and continued until This resulted in the development of large Indian diaspora , which spread from the Indian Ocean i. Fiji , as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population. Lakshmibai, the Rani of Maratha-ruled Jhansi , one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.

Suppression of the Indian Revolt by the English , which depicts the execution of mutineers by blowing from a gun by the British. Albumen silver print by Felice Beato , The Indian rebellion of was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle , which was insensitive to local religious prohibition; key mutineer being Mangal Pandey.

Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse , and felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group. After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut , the rebels very quickly reached Delhi.

Most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence. But, it took the British remainder of and the better part of to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued by the British. In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown , which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the Company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families.

There were officially princely states in , but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir. They were absorbed into the independent nation in — The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent in a map of The princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow.

Victoria Memorial was dedicated to the memory of the Empress of India Victoria in Calcutta , which served as the capital of British-held territories in India until After , the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes.

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The Indian Penal Code came into being. By some 60, Indians had matriculated. However, from s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. In , Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half.

The British goal was said to be for efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in , he was removed. Bengal was reunified in The Morley-Minto reforms of provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council.

The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.

Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate , composer of India's national anthem and Bangladesh's national anthem , while inspired Sri Lankan national anthem. Swami Vivekananda was a key figure in introducing Vedanta and Yoga in the Western world , [] raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.

Jagadish Chandra Bose was a physicist , biologist , botanist , archaeologist , and writer of science fiction. Satyendra Nath Bose was a physicist , specialising in mathematical physics.

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He is best known for his work on quantum mechanics in the early s, providing the foundation for Bose—Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose—Einstein condensate. He is honoured as the namesake of the boson. The Hindu Renaissance [] [] [] refers to a social reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the period of British rule dominated by Bengali Hindus. The Hindu Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy — and ended with Rabindranath Tagore — , although many stalwarts thereafter continued to embody particular aspects of the unique intellectual and creative output of the region.

During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system , and religion. One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.

During Company rule in India and the British Raj , famines in India , due to the failed policies of British colonial government, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of —78 in which 6. Khudiram Bose at the time of his hanging was 18 years old, making him one of the youngest revolutionaries in India.

They are considered among the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement. Jawaharlal Nehru left became India's first prime minister and Mahatma Gandhi right led the Indian independence movement. One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism, [] leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests", [] "racial discriminations", [] and "the revelation of India's past".

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in and the first Indian was appointed in Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army , with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. Bal Gangadhar Tilak , an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" [] became the source of inspiration for Indians.

Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai , who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of all imported items and the use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal. Under them, India's three big provinces — Maharashtra , Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. In , the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British.

The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale , on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule. The partition of Bengal in further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian independence. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action. One such revolutionary, Khudiram Bose , planted bombs near British government officials, but was arrested and executed at the age of The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the First World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands.

The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act , which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India. From leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods.

The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-co-operation , civil disobedience and economic resistance. However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan Republican Association , founded by Chandrasekhar Azad , Bhagat Singh , Sukhdev Thapar and others, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle. The Government of India Act was a major success in this regard. Indian Army gunners probably 39th Battery with 3.

During World War I , over , volunteered for the army, and more than , volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15, men. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly , Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign.

Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli. Other divisions remained in India guarding the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security obligations. One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74, died, [] and another 67, were wounded. Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol on the Arakan front in Burma, Photo circa May Subhas Chandra Bose initiated the legion's formation, intended to serve as a liberation force from the British occupation of India.

Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August , refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It immediately arrested over 60, national and local Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the violent reaction of Congress supporters.

Key leaders were kept in prison until June , although Gandhi was released in May because of his health. Congress, with its leaders incommunicado, played little role on the home front. Subhas Chandra Bose also called Netaji broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The government of Azad Hind had its own currency, court, and civil code; and in the eyes of some Indians its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the independence struggle against the British. By , neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October , and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July The region of Bengal in India suffered a devastating famine during — In January , a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.

The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. Also in early , new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces. Late in , the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June and participating in the formation of an interim government. Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the Indian subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership.

Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August as Direct Action Day , with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the " Great Calcutta Killing of August ".

The communal violence spread to Bihar where Muslims were attacked by Hindus , to Noakhali in Bengal where Hindus were targeted by Muslims , in Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces where Muslims were attacked by Hindus , and on to Rawalpindi in March in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims. The British Indian territories gained independence in , after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal , rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some , dead.

In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography in how historians study India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship. Washbrook, [] downplays ideology. The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in , as defining historical events. This school of historiography has received criticism for Elitism.

The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of being "too much" ideologically influenced.

The "subaltern school", was begun in the s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash. It focuses on the colonial era before and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school. More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for "Hindutva" "Hinduness" in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development. A Sacred Geography", that idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it wasn't just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or racial.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 11 December This article is about the history of the Indian subcontinent with India in focus prior to the partition of India in Part of a series on the. Madrasian Culture Soanian , c. Maurya Dynasty , c. Chalukya Dynasty , c. Delhi Sultanate , c. Mughal Dynasty , c. The Great Rebellion , c. Madrasian Culture Soanian Culture. Bronze Age — BC. Iron Age — BC. Late medieval period — Early modern period — Periods of Sri Lanka. Outline of South Asian history.

South Asian Stone Age. Bhimbetka rock painting , Madhya Pradesh , India c. A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur , Kerala, India. List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites. Swastika seals of Indus Valley Civilisation. List of Rigvedic tribes. Ahichchhatra or Ahi-Kshetra was the ancient capital of Northern Panchala. The remains of this city has been discovered in Bareilly.

A Kuru punch-marked coin , one of the earliest example of coinage in India c. Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi. A page of Isha Upanishad manuscript. Mahavira , the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism. Gautama Buddha 's cremation stupa, Kushinagar Kushinara. The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains , there were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Silver coins of Kosala Mahajanapada, c. Silver coin of Avanti Mahajanapada, c. Haryanka dynasty and Shishunaga dynasty. The Magadha state c. The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great. Ashokan pillar at Vaishali , 3rd century BCE. Three Crowned Kings and Tamilakam. Tamilakam , located in the tip of South India during the Sangam Period, ruled by Chera dynasty , Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty. Ilango Adigal is the author of Silappatikaram , one of the five great epics of Tamil literature. Classical India and Medieval India. The Heliodorus pillar , commissioned by Indo-Greek ambassador Heliodorus , who was one of the earliest recorded Indo-Greek converts to Hinduism ; the pillar is the first known inscription related to Vaishnavism in India.

The Mathura lion capital , 1st century CE. The capital describes, among other donations, the gift of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha , by Queen Ayasia , the "chief queen of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura , satrap Rajuvula ". Silk Road transmission of Buddhism. Harsha and Vardhana dynasty. Surya Sun temples of Early Medieval India. Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya. The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty , Emperor Lalitaditya Muktapida , in the 8th century CE.

It is one of the largest temple complexes on the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the finest examples of stepwell architecture of Gujarat. Ancient universities of India supported by the Palas. Nalanda is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre of Buddhist learning and research in the world from to CE.

It reached its height under the Palas. Landscape of Vikramashila university ruins, the seating and meditation area. Established by Emperor Dharmapala. Mahadeva Temple in Itagi. Siddhesvara Temple in Haveri. Arab incursions into the Indian subcontinent , Umayyad campaigns in India , and List of early Hindu Muslim military conflicts in the Indian subcontinent. Front view of the present Somnath Temple. The Somnath temple was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader Mahmud of Ghazni and repeatedly demolished by successive Muslim invaders, each time being rebuilt by Hindu rulers.

Hill Forts of Rajasthan. Built during the course of the 15th century by Rana Kumbha , the walls of the fort of Kumbhalgarh extend over 38 km, claimed to be the second-longest continuous wall after the Great Wall of China. The fort is gained through series of seven gates, one of the most famous gate being the Fateh Pol, which symbolises Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests with the Rajput victory over the Mughals.

Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests and Rajput Kingdoms. Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six Hill Forts of Rajasthan. Delhi Sultanate reached its zenith under the Turko - Indian Tughlaq dynasty. Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret , commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty. Bhakti movement , Buddhism in India , and Sikhism.

Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi. Ancient market place and plantation at Hampi. Hoysala administration and architecture would influence Vijayanagara Empire , their political heir. Chennakesava Temple is a model example of the Hoysala architecture , later repaired in the 16th century with financial support and grants by the Vijayanagara Emperors.

Ranakpur Jain temple was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of Mewar. Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate , has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia. The Mughal Empire at its greatest extent in the early 18th century. Red Fort was the main residence of the Mughal emperors for nearly years, until Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh. Maharaja Ranjit Singh rebuilt Harmandir Sahib in marble and copper in , overlaid the sanctum with gold foil in An inscribed invocation to Lord Shiva in Sanskrit at the Ateshgah.

An inscribed invocation to the Adi Granth in Punjabi at the Ateshgah. Atashgah is a temple built by Indian traders before , west of the Caspian Sea. The route followed in Vasco da Gama 's first voyage — Depiction at Padmanabhapuram Palace. East India Company and Company rule in India. Indian rebellion of Attack of the mutineers on the Redan Battery at Lucknow, 30 July Famine in India and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule. Indian independence activists and Pakistan Movement.

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Vardhanas of Thanesar and Kanauj. AR Drachm 13mm, 2. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p. Ian McGready, New York: Harper Collins, , pp. Buddhists, Brahmins, and Belief: Epistemology in South Asian Philosophy of religion, p. Columbia University Press, This then united Hinduism; [ There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4.

Vaibhashikas, who agree with later Sautranticas except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect. Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.

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As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism". In JF Richards, ed. Oxford University Press, , p. Columbia University Press, , p. Madhyadesha became the ambition of two particular clans among a tribal people in Rajasthan, known as Gurjara and Pratihara. The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India.

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