While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides , and may have been influenced by him. According to Petrement, Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded as a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil.
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The Thomasine Traditions refers to a group of texts which are attributed to the apostle Thomas. King notes that "Thomasine Gnosticism" as a separate category is being criticised, and may "not stand the test of scholarly scrutiny". He rejected the Old Testament, and followed a limited Christian canon, which included only a redacted version of Luke, and ten edited letters of Paul. Hermeticism is closely related to Gnosticism, but its orientation is more positive.
The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylonia in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan , and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms.
These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism. Manichaeism was founded by the Prophet Mani — Mani's father was a member of the Jewish-Christian sect of the Elcesaites , a subgroup of the Gnostic Ebionites. At ages 12 and 24, Mani had visionary experiences of a "heavenly twin" of his, calling him to leave his father's sect and preach the true message of Christ. In —41, Mani travelled to the Indo-Greek Kingdom of the Sakhas in modern-day Afghanistan , where he studied Hinduism and its various extant philosophies.
Returning in , he joined the court of Shapur I , to whom he dedicated his only work written in Persian, known as the Shabuhragan. The original writings were written in Syriac Aramaic , in a unique Manichaean script. Manichaeism conceives of two coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict. Certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness, and the purpose of material creation is to engage in the slow process of extraction of these individual elements.
In the end the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism , [] in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light.
According to Kurt Rudolph, the decline of Manichaeism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the Paulicians , Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church. In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, because the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam.
In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia mostly amongst educated circles , but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in , Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire.
Their religion has been practised primarily around the lower Karun , Euphrates and Tigris and the rivers that surround the Shatt-al-Arab waterway, part of southern Iraq and Khuzestan Province in Iran. Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan , and there are thought to be between 60, and 70, Mandaeans worldwide.
Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually came to be a key figure in the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity, [] Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed.
Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture, written in Mandaean Aramaic , survive in the modern era. After its demise in the Mediterranean world, Gnosticism lived on in the periphery of the Byzantine Empire, and resurfaced in the western world. The Paulicians , an Adoptionist group which flourished between and in Armenia and the Eastern Themes of the Byzantine Empire , were accused by orthodox medieval sources of being Gnostic and quasi Manichaean Christian.
The Bogomils , emerged in Bulgaria between and and spread throughout Europe. The Cathars Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians were also accused by their enemies of the traits of Gnosticism; though whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. If their critics are reliable the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god , though they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge gnosis as an effective salvific force.
The message of the Islamic prophet Muhammad shows, according to the time of its promulgation, close relations to Gnostic ideas. The Quran, like Gnostic cosmology, makes a sharp distinction between this world and the afterlife. The notion of four rivers in heaven separating this world from the other, also appears frequently in Mandaean literature. God is commonly thought of as being beyond human comprehension. In some Islamic schools of thought, somehow identifiable with the Gnostic Monad. And according to the Islamic belief in strict Oneness of God , there was no room for a lower deity; such as the demiurge.
Ibn al-Muqaffa depicted the Islamic deity as an demonic entity who "fights with humans and boasts about His victories" and sitting on a throne, from which He can descend. It would be impossible that both light and darkness were created from one source, since they were regarded as two different eternal principles. Islam also integrated traces of an entity given authority over the lower world in some early writings: Iblis is regarded by some Sufis as the owner of this world, and humans must avoid the treasures of this world, since they would belong to him.
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However, the Ismailism were often criticised as non-Islamic. Ghazali characterized them, as a group who are just outwardly Shias but were actually adherence of a dualistic and philosophical religion. Further traces of Gnostic ideas can be found in Sufi anthropogenic. A human being captured by his animal desires, mistakenly claims autonomy and independence from the "higher God", thus resembling the lower deity in classical gnostic traditions.
However, since the goal is not to abandon the created world, but just to free oneself from ones own lower desires, it can be disputed wether this can still be Gnostic, but rather a completion of the message of Muhammad. However the Gnostic light metaphorics and the idea of unity of existence still prevailed in later Islamic thought. Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of Kabbalah. Many core Gnostic ideas reappear in Kabbalah, where they are used for dramatically reinterpreting earlier Jewish sources according to this new system.
While some scholars in the middle of the 20th century tried to assume an influence between the Cathar "gnostics" and the origins of the Kabbalah, this assumption has proved to be an incorrect generalization not substantiated by any original texts. Kabbalah does not employ the terminology or labels of non-Jewish Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The Mandaeans are an ancient Gnostic sect that have survived to this day and are found today in Iraq.
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A number of 19th-century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer , [] Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. Yeats were more tangentially influenced. Early 20th-century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung who supported Gnosticism , Eric Voegelin who opposed it , Jorge Luis Borges who included it in many of his short stories , and Aleister Crowley , with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderately influenced.
Alfred North Whitehead was aware of the existence of the newly discovered Gnostic scrolls. Accordingly, Michel Weber has proposed a Gnostic interpretation of his late metaphysics. Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in Gnosticism was known primarily through the works of heresiologists , Church Fathers who opposed those movements.
These writings had an antagonistic bias towards gnostic teachings, and were incomplete. Several heresiological writers, such as Hippolytus, made little effort to exactly record the nature of the sects they reported on, or transcribe their sacred texts. Reconstructions of incomplete Gnostic texts were attempted in modern times, but research on Gnosticism was coloured by the orthodox views of those heresiologists.
Since this time, both Simon and Menander have been considered as 'proto-Gnostic'. From Samaria he charted an apparent spread of the teachings of Simon through the ancient "knowers" into the teachings of Valentinus and other, contemporary Gnostic sects. It also focuses on the connection between pre-Socratic and therefore Pre-Incantation of Christ ideas and the false beliefs of early gnostic heretical leaders.
Thirty-three of the groups he reported on are considered Gnostic by modern scholars, including 'the foreigners' and 'the Seth people'. Prior to the discovery at Nag Hammadi, a limited number of texts were available to students of Gnosticism. Reconstructions were attempted from the records of the heresiologists, but these were necessarily coloured by the motivation behind the source accounts. Twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman.
These codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of A 1st- or 2nd-century date of composition for the lost Greek originals has been proposed, though this is disputed; the manuscripts themselves date from the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Nag Hammadi texts demonstrated the fluidity of early Christian scripture and early Christianity itself. Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, the Gnostic movements were largely perceived through the lens of the early church heresiologists.
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Johann Lorenz von Mosheim — proposed that Gnosticism developed on its own in Greece and Mesopotamia, spreading to the west and incorporating Jewish elements. According to Mosheim, Jewish thought took Gnostic elements and used them against Greek philosophy. Horn and Ernest Anton Lewald proposed Persian and Zoroastrian origins, while Jacques Matter described Gnosticism as an intrusion of eastern cosmological and theosophical speculation into Christianity.
In the s Gnosticism was placed within Greek philosophy, especially neo-Platonism. The Religionsgeschichtliche Schule "history of religions school", 19th century had a profound influence on the study of Gnosticism. Hans Jonas — took an intermediate approach, using both the comparative approach of the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule and the existentialist hermeneutics of Bultmann. Jonas emphasized the duality between God and the world, and concluded that Gnosticism cannot be derived from Platonism. Contemporary scholarship largely agrees that Gnosticism has Jewish or Judeo-Christian origins; [20] this theses is most notably put forward by Gershom G.
Scholem — and Gilles Quispel — The study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christianity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in According to Matthew J. Dillon, six trends can be discerned in the definitions of Gnosticism: The Messina conference on the origins of gnosis and Gnosticism proposed to designate.
This definition has now been abandoned. According to Dillon, the texts from Nag Hammadi made clear that this definition was limited, and that they are "better classified by movements such as Valentinian , mythological similarity Sethian , or similar tropes presence of a Demiurge. Hans Jonas discerned two main currents of Gnosticism, namely Syrian-Egyptian, and Persian, which includes Manicheanism and Mandaeanism.
Persian Gnosticism possesses more dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist Zoroastrians. The medieaval the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians seem to include elements of both categories. This "Christian Gnosticism" was Christocentric, and influenced by Christian writings such as the Gospel of John and the Pauline epistles. The best known example of this approach is Adolf von Harnack — , who stated that "Gnosticism is the acute Hellenization of Christianity.
Hans Jonas — took an existential phenomenological approach to Gnosticism. According to Jonas, alienation is a distinguishing characteristics of Gnosticism, making it different from contemporary religions. Jonas compares this alienation with the existentialist notion of geworfenheit , being thrown into a hostile world.
In the late s scholars voiced concerns about the broadness of "Gnosticism" as a meaningful category. Bentley Layton proposed to category Gnosticism by delineating which groups were marked as gnostic in ancient texts. According to Layton, this term was mainly applied by heresiologists to the myth described in the Apocryphon of John , and was used mainly by the Sethians and the Ophites. According to Layton, texts which refer to this myth can be called "classical Gnostic". In addition, Alastair Logan uses social theory to identify Gnosticism.
He uses Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge's sociological theory on traditional religion, sects and cults. According to Logan, the Gnostics were a cult, at odds with the society at large. According to Michael Allen Williams , the concept of Gnosticism as a distinct religious tradition is questionable, since "gnosoi" was a pervasive characteristics of many religious traditions in antiquity, and not restricted to the so-called Gnostic systems. According to Williams the term needs replacing to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises, [] and suggests to replace it with the term "the Biblical demiurgical tradition".
According to Karen King, scholars have "unwittingly continued the project of ancient heresiologists", searching for non-Christian influences, thereby continuing to portray a pure, original Christianity. Carl Jung approached Gnosticism from a psychological perspective, which was followed by Gilles Quispel. According to this approach, Gnosticism is a map for the human development, in which an undivided person, centered on the Self , develops out of the fragmentary personhood of young age.
According to Quispel, gnosis is a third force in western culture, alongside faith and reason, which offers an experiential awareness of this Self. According to Ioan Culianu , gnosis is made possible through universal operations of the mind, which can be arrived at "anytime, anywhere". From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Not to be confused with Agnosticism. Part of a series on Gnosticism. Buddhist modernism New religious movement " Spiritual but not religious " Syncretism.
Mystical experience Religious experience Spiritual practice. Ego death Individuation Spiritual development Self-actualization. Humanistic psychology Mindfulness Positive psychology Self-help Self-realization True self and false self. Mystical psychosis Cognitive science of religion Neuroscience of religion Geschwind syndrome Evolutionary psychology of religion. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. July Learn how and when to remove this template message. Diversity in early Christian theology.
Jesus in comparative mythology and Christ myth theory. Gnosticism in modern times. Gnostic texts and Nag Hammadi library. Indeed, it appears increasingly evident that many of the newly published Gnostic texts were written in a context from which Jews were not absent. In some cases, indeed, a violent rejection of the Jewish God, or of Judaism, seems to stand at the basis of these texts. Robinson, "Sethians and Johannine Thought: Brill, , p. The gnostic demiurge bears resemblance to figures in Plato's Timaeus and Republic. In The Republic the description of the leontomorphic "desire" in Socrates ' model of the psyche bears a resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion.
In time, the gospel-narrative of this embodiment of Wisdom became interpreted as the literal history of the life of Jesus.
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This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic". As we have seen, Epiphanius is one of the witnesses for the existence of a special sect called 'the gnostics', and yet Epiphanius himself seems to distinguish between these people and 'the Sethians' Pan Irenaeus of Lyons Against the heresies , Vol. Retrieved October 21, The origins of anti-semitism: Texts and Commentaries by Steven Bayme Publisher: New Perspectives , Yale University Press , , p. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Five Images of Christ in the Postapostolic Age.
The most prominent example of Angel Adoptionism from the early Church would have to be the document known as The Shepherd of Hermass.
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In The Shepherd, the savior is an angel called the "angel of justification", who seems to be identified with the archangel Michael. Although the angel is often understood to be Jesus, he is never named as Jesus. The Harvard Theological Review. Mead and the Gnostic Quest p8. He was one of the earliest and most emphatic scholars to propose the Gnostic debt to Buddhist thought. Platonism, the Persian religion, and the Buddhism of India.
The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved September 29, Fragments of a Faith Forgotten. A Brief Summary of Gnosticism". Retrieved 15 May Occidental Mythology , page Retrieved 13 February Jesus, Gnosis and Dogma. The Saviour, jesus Christ, who from the fullness the pleroma of the Father descended on earth, is identified with the Logos, but initially not entirely with the Only Begotten Son. Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Pieces in a Puzzle of Christian Origins". Journal of Higher Criticism.
The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. New York City, New York: Hoeller, On the Trail of the Winged God. Heracleon's Commentary on John. An Introduction , The School of Valentinus , ed. A History of Christian Thought, Vol. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Awn Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: The Nature and History of Gnosticism".
A New New Testament: Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. Advice to Clever Children. The Apocryphal Whitehead Pub.
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Robinson , The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: Albrile, Ezio , "Gnosticism: Secrets of Mary Magdalene. Volume 5, Issue 2, Autumn , Pages — , 5 2: A History of Gnosticism. Was Jezus oorspronkelijk een heidense god? Economic and Social Origins of Gnosticism. Mobs will not spawn on the surface of the Twilight Forest, though they will in dungeons and caves. EnderZoo mobs do not respect this peace. A 2x2 pool of water only 1 block deep forms the basis for this portal; additionally it must be surrounded by "natural" vegetation including flowers, grass, saplings, and mushrooms.
Once the pool is surrounded in this manner, the portal is completed by dropping a Diamond into the water. The water will turn purple similar to a Nether Portal and a bolt of lightning will strike the portal, inflicting minor damage to nearby players. Players may instantly travel to the Twilight Forest by walking or jumping into the newly created portal. Once the portal is activated, it is possible to remove the flowers around it while keeping the portal intact. The majority of the Twilight Forest is a peaceful biome.
Despite the perpetually dim conditions, hostile mobs will not spawn on the surface in the Twilight Forest itself. Instead, progression through the mod is centered around landmarks that serve to advance the level of difficulty encountered through increasingly challenging enemies and bosses. Chest items and drops become correspondingly more rewarding with each new area. Twilight Forest Portals will not discriminate as to the area in which they appear; a newly created portal may bring the player to the interior of a Hollow Hill or even one of the various Twilight Forest boss lairs.
As such, some degree of caution and preparation should be exercised when first passing through a Twilight Forest Portal. From Feed The Beast Wiki.