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These are part quantitative and part qualitative and introduce a new aspect to the competencies within Abbott Aerospace. Comments are welcomed and encouraged on AbbottAerospace. Taylor was correct in implying that there was a future for the diesel in powering airships.
Compared with the present Otto cycle engine, the Diesel powerplant weight, including fuel for a long-distance flight, would apparently be less. It is doubtful whether there would be any saving if the orthodox engine were operated on a more suitable fuel. Inherently the Diesel engine must stand higher pressures and therefore is heavier per horsepower. A partial solution of this difficulty is the two-cycle operation, which seems almost a requirement if the Diesel cycle is to be considered at all for aircraft. For any normal commercial operation in the United States there seems to be little or no improvement to be had from the Diesel.
After all, it is not entirely a question of fuel cost but payloads carried for a given horsepower. It seemed at one time as though the Diesel was particularly desirable for Zeppelin work. Now that blau gas has been introduced, which obviates the need of valving precious lifting gas, the Diesel cycle seems much less interesting for this purpose. There may be a reduction in fire hazard and radio interference with the Diesel cycle, but it is doubtful whether it will be used in view of these considerations alone.
Fayette Taylor professor of aeronautical engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: I should expect its first really practical installation to be in lighter-than-air craft. Taylor acting chief engineer, Wright Aeronautical Corporation: This development will come slowly and will not be a solid injection engine.
Mullinnix former chief of powerplant section, Navy Bureau of Aeronautics: The advantages of compression-ignition, including reduced fire hazard, more efficient cycle, elimination of electrical apparatus and hence of radio interference, elimination of carburetion problems, and other benefits less evident, would seem to outweigh the difficulties encountered in metering and injecting minute quantities of fuel at the proper instant. Although the Diesel engine suffers upon comparison with the Otto cycle engine in flexibility there seems to be a definite field for employment of Diesels and a gradual extension of their use may be predicted.
Geisse chief engineer, Comet Engine Corporation: Navy, Naval Aircraft Factory: Woolson aeronautical engineer, Packard Motor Car Company: There are, however, many basic problems to be solved for the solution of which there exists no precedent. Tilley chief engineer, Kinner Airplane and Motor Corp.
Considerable development of the compression ignition type of engine for aircraft will be required before it is commonly available. It is believed that the weight per horsepower must be equal to, or less than, that of the present type of engines, in order to interest the public, since rapid take-off, rate of climb, and speed are desired, rather than low fuel consumption or high mileage.
Most flights are of few hours duration. It is believed that flights must be of over five or six hours duration in order to show any advantage of Diesel engines with low fuel consumption if appreciably heavier than present engines. Also the difference between Otto cycle and Diesel becomes slight as the compression ratios come closer together. Comments of Flight Crews: The preceding comments were made by engineers thinking primarily of the commercial possibilities of the diesel.
Following are comments by flight crewmembers about the operating characteristics of the Packard diesel. The former were largely optimistic. Most of them were only familiar with the aeronautical diesel as a design project and therefore did not have the practical experience necessary to understand all of its limitations. The latter were pessimistic, as they knew firsthand various shortcomings of the engine which only became apparent when it was operated. My only experience with the Packard diesel was in a Lockheed "Vega" which I owned back about The Wright J-5 had been replaced with the hp Packard Diesel.
My main complaint was the excessive fumes. When I would come home at night my wife would greet me with, "You have been flying that oil burner again. Looking backward, it is my guess that the Diesel would have had only a limited period of acceptance even if all mistakes had been avoided. It is easier and cheaper to get performance with lighter and more powerful engines and longer runways than by refining the airplane.
Fuel economy of an engine has ceased to be the deciding factor. Higher utilization of a high speed Jet at least in part offsets the inefficient use of fuel. The only time the Diesel had a chance was from the middle 20's perhaps on thru WW-2 for certain things due to gasoline shortage. To sum it up, the thing that licked them worst was the use of a single valve for inlet and exhaust making it impossible to collect and keep the fumes out of the fuselage. I was flying Chamberlin's diesel-powered Lockheed, in which a month before I had made an official altitude record for both men and women in aircraft powered by an engine of that type.
The record, I believe, still holds. It was a rugged, dependable plane whose experimental oil-burning engine nevertheless had a number of bugs. For one thing, it was constantly blowing out glow-plugs used for warming the fuel mixture, and when that happened long white plumes of smoke would stream out, giving spectators the impression that the ship was on fire.
Packard DR-980
For another, the vibration was so bad that out of 10 standard instruments on the plane, 7 were broken from the jarring before my return. The diesel fuel also produced a strong odor in the cockpit, the fumes so permeating my luggage and clothes that my public appearances during the tour always were highly and not very agreeably aromatic. Having a strong stomach, I soon became accustomed to the fumes, but another pilot who ferried the plane between cities for me on one occasion On arrival he said, "I wouldn't fly that oil burner another mile.
The Ford Trimotor was the poorest of the lot. It was inherently noisy and slow, and with the Packards installed it was on the point of being underpowered. It was almost impossible to synchronize the three engines, and the beat was almost unbearable. It was not flown much but it made a fine conversation piece standing on the airport apron The Waco taperwing developed the unnerving habit of breaking flying and landing wires from the vibration, and most of the time sat on the hangar floor with its wings drooping like a sick pigeon.
In flight the open cockpit filled with exhaust smoke and unburned fuel and the pilot would land after an hour's flight looking like an Indianapolis Mile Race driver The Stinson "Detroiter," the Bellanca "Pacemaker" and the Buhl-Verville "Airsedan" were the most successful ships and were the most used. The "Airsedan," in which Woolson was killed, was his favorite ship, and the one I believe that was the most flown. The Towle TA-3 amphibian flew beautifully, but not for long. It never got a chance to do much as it was a victim of the depression.
It was built of corrugated aluminum exactly like the Ford Trimotor. As a matter of fact, Towle had been employed by Ford until Ford cancelled airplane building. Towle got his airplane built at the hangar on Grosse Isle in Detroit, and ran out of money during the flight testing program.
He now looked for money to continue with and found a backer in the person of one Doctor Adams, a widely advertised "Painless Dentist" of Detroit. Adams wanted a quicker return on his money than the average backer and he insisted that Towle put the airplane in service so it could start earning some money. At this time the amphibian was beginning to become popular for intercity flying, especially around the Great Lakes region as all of the major cities were located on the waterfront. What was more natural than an airline flying passengers right into the downtown area of a city?
Thompson was doing it between Detroit and Cleveland, Marquette was doing it between Detroit and Milwaukee, so Adams applied for permission to operate an airplane between Detroit and Cleveland and other cities on the lakes. In those days it was necessary to prove an airplane's reliability by flying a certain number of trips over the proposed route with a simulated payload. This payload was supposed to consist of sand bags, but usually consisted of any mechanic or pilot who happened to be loose at the moment, and who had nerve enough to go along.
Mechanics were easier to load and unload than sand bags. The Towle was in the middle of the qualification flights, and the publicity began to appear about the new airline. Much newsprint was devoted to the fact that the Towle was powered by the new Packard diesel engine, and this, of course, made it the only safe airline since all its competitors were using the old-fashioned dangerous gasoline. On the last payload trip of the Towle the pilot asked me if I wanted to go along, and of course I was delighted. I neglected to mention that I had been hired by the Adams airline as a mechanic because of my experience in repairing the corrugated skin of the Ford Trimotor owned by my employer, the Knowles Flying Service.
The mere fact that I did many repairs to the airframe did not preclude me from getting my share of the engine work too, and since I was already familiar with the Packard diesel, I was quickly hired by Dr. The last flight was indeed the last flight. We took off from the Detroit City Airport and when we crossed the Detroit river the pilot decided to land at the Solvay Coal Company docks and fuel up for the opening of the airline the next day.
The Solvay Coal Company was the only place in Detroit where diesel fuel was obtainable at the time and all of the diesel powered yachts got fuel there. The pilot was not too experienced in the operation of amphibians, and he put the wheels down as we approached the river. When we hit the water the airplane went over on its back and sunk to the bottom. It came up to the surface again, and we all climbed out onto the keel, and waited for rescue.
A police boat came over and took us to the dock. The police sent us to the hospital and then went back and towed the airplane over to the shipyard next door to Solvay. While we were at the hospital, the crane man hooked onto the Towle and lifted it out of the water and gently set it down on the dock. He was only trying to help, but he inadvertently set it down on its back instead of its wheels. That was the end of the Adams airline. The Packard Company took back their engines.
I helped remove them the next day. We dismantled the airplane and trucked it back to the airport where it sat in a state of neglect for some time. The pilot was fired, I lost my job, and Towle lost his airplane. Greater reliability because of extreme simplicity of design; greater economy because of lower fuel cost plus lower fuel consumption, permitting greater payloads with longer range of flight; and greater safety because of removal of the fire hazard through the use of fire-safe fuel and absence of electrical ignition equipment.
These were the engine's principal advantages. Others are analyzed here by the author in order of their importance. At low altitudes the diesel uses an excess of air to eliminate a smoking exhaust; consequently at high altitudes, where the air is less dense, the diesel is still able to maintain much of its power. In contrast, the carburetored gasoline engine is sensitive to the fuel-air ratio and thus has no surplus air available at higher altitudes.
A malfunctioning carburetor could cause a gasoline engine to cease operating, but an inoperative fuel injector would cause the Packard diesel to lose one ninth of its power, since each cylinder had its own independently operating injector. In practice, however, because of the excessive vibration, the engine was generally shut off immediately after a cylinder cut out. Carburetor icing was an impossibility because there was no carburetor. Any excess lubricating oil in a diesel engine's cylinder is consumed cleanly to produce power. By contrast, such oil in a gasoline engine's cylinder is only partly burned.
As a result carbon deposits form that eventually cause malfunctioning of the spark plugs, valves, and combustion chambers. This advantage accrued to the diesel because it utilized an excess of air, and in addition its cylinder walls were hotter. The engine was very clean-running from the standpoint of oil leakage. This was a safety factor since it eliminated the possibility of a fire starting on the outside surfaces of the engine, and in addition it saved the time and money that was normally spent cleaning engines.
This permitted better streamlining. Having less cooling fin area, it warmed up more rapidly than a gasoline engine. Large airplanes would therefore need fewer engines if diesel powered. Smaller fuel tanks could be used because of the greater fuel economy of the diesel, and also because of the high specific gravity of fuel oil as compared to gasoline. Furthermore, these smaller tanks could be placed in more convenient locations. Not having a carburetor the engine could not backfire, further reducing the fire hazard.
The exhaust note was lower because of the diesel's higher expansion ratio. The absence of an ignition system permitted the diesel to operate in the heaviest types of precipitation. Such conditions might cause the ignition system of a gasoline engine to malfunction. The Packard diesel was flown at times without exhaust stacks or manifolds; this was practical from a safety standpoint because of the diesel's lower exhaust temperature due to its higher expansion ratio.
Elimination of these parts reduced the weight and cost of the engine installation. Finally, the engine was ideal for aerobatics, since the injectors, unlike carburetors, would work equally well whether right side up or upside down. An advantage peculiar to the Packard among aeronautical diesels was its light weight. In fairness to the Beardmore, it was the only one of the three engines designed for airship use, and part of its heaviness was due to the special requirements of lighter-than-air craft. A contemporary and comparable American gasoline engine, the Lycoming R, weighed 2.
To have designed a diesel aircraft engine as light as a gasoline one was a remarkable achievement. Disadvantages There are four main reasons why the Packard diesel was not successful. First the Packard Motor Car Company put the engine into production a brief three years after it was created.
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The only successful airplane diesel, the German Junkers "Jumo," was in development more than three times as long The following tests indicate that the Packard diesel was not ready for production, and hence was unreliable. This test was identical to the standard Army hour test which was used for the granting of the Approved Type Certificate. The engine tested was numbered , and was the first to be made with production tools approximately half a dozen engines had been handmade previously.
It had to be stopped three times, twice due to failure of the fuel pump plunger springs and once due to the loosening of the oil connection ring. These failures were attributed to manufacturing discrepancies. In addition, 4 out of a total of valve springs broke. Navy Hour Test Jan. The engine used in the Navy test was numbered Apparently only 20 production engines had been built during the preceding 12 months; Dorner in a letter of March 3, , states that the total number of Packard diesels produced was approximately The engine had to be stopped three times, twice due to valve-spring collar failures and once due to a valve head breaking.
Because of these failures this test was not completed. The following significant quotations have been extracted from the test: Flight tests, until the durability of the engine is improved, be limited to a determination of the critical engine speeds, and to short hops in seaplanes It is believed that this size engine should be made suitable for service use before this type in a larger class is attempted. A year had passed between the making of engine and , yet the reliability had not improved.
Although unreliability was the immediate cause of failure, there were two design defects which would have doomed the engine even if it had been reliable. All the Packard diesels were of the 4-stroke cycle unblown type, yet the most successful airplane diesels were of the 2-stroke cycle blown type. The diesel engine's fuel consumption was far less although its price was considerably higher. Its size, moreover, was too small for the technology of fuel injectors. Although the development and adoption for transport purposes of the relatively high-speed compression ignition engine has been rapid during the last few years, there has been no corresponding advance in its adoption for aircraft propulsion.
A reason for this is the recent great advance in "take-off" power in the petrol gasoline engine due to the introduction of 87 octane fuel which permits higher compression ratios and the strong probability of octane fuels in the near future, still further increasing this power. The need for increased take-off power results from the higher wing loading necessitated by the modern demand for commercial aircraft with higher cruising speeds with reasonable power expenditure. Production of the Packard diesel ceased in Less than 10 years later octane ratings had increased to over , putting the diesel at a further disadvantage.
The Packard diesel had the highest maximum cylinder pressure up to psi at peak rpm of any proven contemporary aircraft diesel engine. The designers considered it necessary to adopt unusual but admittedly clever expedients to counteract the great torque irregularity caused by the excessive maximum pressure. The adoption of the lower pressure of lbs.
The use of such high pressures is in reality the quick and easy way to secure high-speed operation and can be justified only from this standpoint, although the resulting increased difficulty in keeping the engine light enough was a strong offsetting factor. One of the most severe problems connected with the development of this engine was the piston ring sealing.
Special compression rings were made with no gaps and further work in this respect could have been used to advantage had the engine been kept in production. This was probably done to reduce vibration and the problem of piston-ring sealing. In fact some airplanes fitted with the Packard diesel engine were painted black, so that soot deposits from the exhaust would not be noticed. This fault could have been eliminated by the use of separate valves for the intake and exhaust systems.
It was not possible to start the engine when the temperature dropped much below 32 deg. F unless glow plugs were used. These spark-plug-like devices, which were only used for starting, had resistance windings which glowed continuously when turned on. The additional heat glow plugs provided made starting an easy matter in the coldest weather; however, they complicated the design of an engine noted for its simplicity, and they used so much electricity that only a long flight would allow the generator to fully recharge the battery.
It is significant that as the Packard developed, it became heavier. Having fuel injectors, the engine was more sensitive to dirt in the fuel system than a carburetor-equipped gasoline engine. Because of the engine's high compression, it would have been impossible to have hand-started a Packard diesel this way. In a letter to the Air Museum, January 15, , Dorner commented: Woolson that the large transport airlines were controlled by oil companies which were not interested in supplying two different kinds of aircraft fuel, and in savings of fuel. However, it is significant that the advertisement was placed by Frank Hawks of the Texas Company largely as a gesture of friendship to Woolson.
Woolson, aeronautical engineer for the Packard Motor Company and adapter of the diesel engine to airplanes, were killed here today. Cramer, pilot left , and Oliver L. Paquette, radio operator, just before taking off from Detroit, Michigan, on July 28, Columbus wanted to sail west beyond the limits set by the learned navigators of his time, and in much the same consuming fashion Parker D.
Cramer wanted to show his generation and posterity that a subarctic air route to Europe via Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and Denmark was feasible On July 27, without any preliminary announcement, Cramer left Detroit in a Diesel-engined Bellanca, and following the course he took with Bert Hassel three years ago, he flew first to Cochrane, on Hudson Bay. His next stop was Great Whales and then Wakeham Bay.
He crossed the icecap at a point farther north than the routes that have been discussed heretofore, but almost on the most direct or Great Circle route from Detroit to Copenhagen. He was accompanied by Oliver Paquette, radio operator. They were on their way more than a week before they were discovered. To Iceland, to the Faroe Islands, to the Shetlands. They were taxiing across the little harbor of Lerwick, Shetland Islands, when a messenger from the bank waved a yellow paper. It was a warning of gales on the coast east to Copenhagen.
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Cramer apparently thought it was an enthusiastic bon voyage, and, after circling the town, flew away. A Swedish radio station reported a faint "Hello, Hello, Hello" in English, but the plane was not seen again. As the result of a personal conversation with his brother, William A. Cramer, in , the author learned that the fuselage and floats of the airplane were found six weeks later.
Since there was no indication of a heavy impact not a single glass dial on the instrument panel was broken , a successful landing must have been made. Several weeks later, a package was found wrapped in a torn oilskin containing instruments, maps, and a personal letter, all substantiating the evidence that the landing was successful. It can only be surmised that there was engine failure, probably due to a clogged oil filter. This time, however, storm conditions probably made the takeoff impossible. As a final summary of the author's analysis of the Packard diesel engine, it must be emphasized that although the engine burned a much cheaper and safer fuel more efficiently than any of its gasoline rivals, it was too unreliable to compete with them.
Full text of "The First Airplane Diesel Engine: Packard Model DR of "
Even if it had been reliable, it was too small to be useful to the large transport operators, to whom its fuel economy would have appealed. In addition, this mechanism operated on the wrong cycle: Lastly, it was doomed by the advent of high octane gasolines, first used while it was still in the development stage. These new fuels reduced the diesel's advantage resulting from low fuel consumption, and, in addition, gave the gasoline engine a definite advantage from the standpoint of performance.
The Packard diesel was a daring design but, for the reasons analyzed in this chapter, it could not meet this competition, and therefore failed to survive. Agreement between Hermann I. Licensor warrants that he is the inventor of an oil burning engine, is the sole owner of United States patent Number 1,,, dated May 17, , and United States patent applications, Serial Numbers 46, filed July 27, , and 88, and 88,, filed February 15, , relating to such engines and is joint or sole owner of patents or patent rights relating to said engines in England, Germany and Sweden.
Licensor hereby gives and grants unto Licensee an exclusive license for the manufacture, within the United States and its dependencies, and a non-exclusive license for the use and sale, of engines for aircraft, and a non-exclusive license for the manufacture, use, and sale of engines for motor vehicles and motor boats, under said United States patent Number 1,,, under all after-acquired patents and under all patents that may result from said patent applications, and from all other patent applications pertaining to his present oil burning engine or reasonable variations thereof, such licenses to extend for the full life and term of all such patents, provided however, that there is specially excepted from this grant--stationary engines, tractor engines, and engines for agricultural purposes.
Licensor further hereby permits said Licensee to export to all other countries and sell and use there, without further royalty, all engines made by Licensee in the United States under this license. Licensee agrees to build and test at least one experimental aircraft engine with special Dorner features, and to take all reasonable measures to reach the stage of final test. Within one year after the completion of tests of the aircraft engine built by Licensee hereunder, or in any event not later than November 1, , Licensee will decide whether it will proceed with the manufacture of engines hereunder, or not.
If Licensee decides in the negative for reasons which are under the influence of Licensor, then Licensee will give Licensor notice and sufficient time to try to correct possible imperfections, and the time for final decision will be correspondingly extended. If the reasons for the negative decision are under the influence of Licensee, then Licensee will grant to Licensor an oral conference at Detroit and explain the reasons in detail.
In event a negative decision is finally rendered by Licensee this agreement may be terminated at any time thereafter upon sixty 60 days' notice in writing to Licensee and both parties released from all further obligations hereunder. Licensee agrees that if after three 3 years from the date hereof Licensee is not manufacturing and does not contemplate the manufacture of, a certain size and type of aircraft engine which Licensor would like to grant another manufacturer the right to build and which would not reasonably compete with anything manufactured by Licensee, Licensee will release such size and type aircraft engine from the exclusiveness of this license and thereby permit Licensor to grant a license to such other manufacturer to make, use and sell such engine and such engine only.
Licensee agrees to pay royalty on all engines manufactured and sold or used under this agreement, based on effective brake horsepower under normal load, as follows: Licensor agrees that Licensee shall have the benefit of any more favorable royalty rates that may be hereafter granted to or enjoyed by any other manufacturer of engines other than aircraft engines. Licensee agrees to keep proper books of account showing the number of engines manufactured and sold or used under this agreement and to report quarterly to Licensor.
In event of default of the Licensee in the payment of any of the sums herein provided for, Licensor may terminate this license agreement by serving upon the Licensee Sixty 60 days' notice in writing of its desire and determination so to do and stating the default upon which the notice is based, and at the expiration of such Sixty 60 days this license shall thereupon be terminated, provided however that such termination shall not release the Licensee from obligations already accrued hereunder and not performed, and provided further that if, during said Sixty 60 days' notice period, the default named in said notice shall have been made good then this license to continue as if no default and notice had been made or given.
At the expiration of any one year from November 1, , Licensee may terminate this agreement upon Sixty 60 days' notice in writing to Licensor of its desire and determination so to do, provided however, that such termination shall not release the Licensee from obligations already accrued hereunder and not performed.
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In case of differences of opinion regarding any of the terms of this agreement, the dispute shall be submitted to arbitration. Each party shall select one arbitrator and if they, after five days, fail to agree upon a third, the United States Court for the Detroit District shall be asked to appoint such a third arbitrator, and the decision of a majority of the arbitrators shall be binding upon both parties.
In witness whereof, we have hereto set our hands and seals at Detroit, Michigan, on the day and year first above written. Milton Tibbetts Assistant Secretary 2. Woolson, chief aeronautical engineer of the Packard Motor Car Co. The new plant, according to the announcement by Hugh J. Ferry, treasurer of the Packard firm, will be completed and in operation within five weeks.
Between and men will be employed and, according to expectations, production will be carried on at the rate of about Diesel engines per month by July. The Packard Diesel was announced first in October, following experiments covering several years. Since that time Captain Woolson has built four of the engines, all of hp. The Diesel, installed on the Stinson-Detroiter, it was said, now has had hr.
The other three engines have been tested on the block in the company's research plant.
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It is claimed by the builders that the Packard Diesel will produce a saving of about 20 per cent. It is claimed further that the Diesel will prove far more reliable in construction than any airplane engine yet developed. Evidence of this, it was pointed out, is seen in the performance of the initial Diesel. Ferry, nor Captain Woolson, would disclose any technical details as to the engine's construction in making it applicable to airplane use, the secret of its success was reported to be an especially designed pumping device creating high compression necessary for Diesel firing.
Since announcement of the engine, the Packard factory has been literally a Mecca for engineers from many parts of the world wishing to see the engine. None of the construction secrets, however, have been divulged, it was said. The Packard announcement set at rest rumors that the company planned construction of a plant costing several million dollars, as well as reports that the company was going into the production of airplanes. Ferry said, "will be confined to the engine, or power plant end of the aircraft industry. We will continue to build the water-cooled type we have been producing for years.
The bulk of the machine work, however, will be done in the present Packard machine shops. Although no approximation of selling price on the new Diesel was divulged, it was intimated that the engine will retail at a price competitive with or slightly under the price of present gasoline consuming air-cooled engines of that horsepower range. Captain Woolson will have complete charge of the Diesel plant, it was announced.
In diesel-engined airplanes the size of the engine could be reduced by 25 percent by feeding oxygen into the intake air during the takeoff. Applying the results of the experiments to a transport plane, Fig. The curves are based on cruising horsepower and an estimated engine weight of 2 lb per hp. For the take-off hp are necessary. To supply the additional hp, lb of oxygen are fed into the intake air during the take-off. The volume of lb of liquid oxygen is approximately 20 gal.
Standard liquid air containers of 55 litre capacity weigh 75 lb. Therefore the weight of the oxygen and container is lb while the possible saving in engine weight is lb. The weight per take-off horsepower is thereby reduced from 2 to 1. The calculation is shown in Table 1. Cruising horsepower , takeoff horsepower The raising of the oxygen concentration from the normal 21 per cent to 45 per cent was found to be equivalent to a raise of approximately 10 cetane numbers as far as starting is concerned.
Five per cent increase in oxygen concentration eliminated exhaust smoke completely. Dorner to National Air Museum, March 3, Packard Motor Car Co. Packard Motor Car Company, , p. Dorner to National Air Museum, December 16, Wiegman to National Air Museum, November 1, Byttebier to National Air Museum, October 20, Chamberlin to National Air Museum, February 8, In doing this it also increases somewhat the amount of fresh air introduced into the cylinders. Woolson invented a 2-stroke cycle blown engine; the patent was issued in patent with rights assigned to the Packard Motor Car Company.
Woolson himself died in A 3-cylinder two-stroke cycle engine therefore has the same capacity to do work as a 6-cylinder four-stroke cycle engine. For this reason the former type of engine is both more compact and lighter than the latter type. It describes a similar but nonautomatic system. Woolson therefore fully realized the disadvantages of the high cylinder pressures his engine developed at high rpm's. Hatch of the National Air Museum, it is possible that the engine failed because the fuel injectors became clogged.
He notes that the airplane refueled at several fishing ports, and therefore must have used diesel oil set aside for fishing boats. This oil was generally quite dirty. As a result it was routine for the fishermen to have to clean engine oil filters frequently enroute. The oil filters of the Packard diesel could not be cleaned in flight. The following misprints have been corrected: Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will be renamed. Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation and you!
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