Gow describes gaining a unique grounding in literature at university: After university, Gow was a successful actor before choosing writing: You learn structure from being inside plays. This reference to the theatrical experience appeals to an understanding that undercuts a received perception of what Australian writing should be. Australian theatre goers are more interested in seeing literary names than up and coming contemporaries, and so they tend to demand international fare. He is as apt to compare himself to Shakespeare or Chekov as an Australian playwright.
Later, Gow was philosophical: The smell of a fresh masterpiece. Look at the verandahs. With a whisky, watching your cows come home, building a new society? And then the railway coming. Those wild Irish navvies. You should memorise every line of this. It took four years to produce. This is your past. The critique of colonial iconography in The Kids has an interesting counterpart in his later play Some have suggested that , a play about colonial Australia commissioned for the Bicentenary, was poorly received because its message of a society founded on violence, genocide and various forms of oppression was not what Australians wanted to hear about themselves, and so generated feelings that it was time for a star to be taken down a notch as Gow has acknowledged in interviews.
The play explicitly details the genocidal and exploitative aspects of the act of settlement in Australia: They are all blood spattered. One of them carries an aboriginal spear and shield. Hell of a lot of work still to do. We found the creek. Whereas other history involved conflict and social and cultural change, what we were told about Australia lacked an incisive analysis of what could have been done differently, who exploited others, who suffered and what mistakes were made.
We were taught a bland progressivism: We were given heroes and stress was laid on the advance beyond Old World decadence through the physical and moral benefits of our new environment. Needless to say it could have been taught in other ways. At the time of writing, Prime Minister John Howard looks to dictate to the states through funding his own unapologetic version of history for the school curriculum: The announcement was made as part of an election campaign and clearly thought to be capable of capturing popular sentiment.
It is both his most popular and most critically praised work to the point he has spoken of regretting the increased expectations it created. National critics approved of the device and set about explaining with a liberal dose of their own free associations the use of Shakespeare in a play set in s Australia. Whether these critics thought they knew more about Australia than Gow their received image brooking no contradiction: Regarding the influence on his work of poststructuralist and postmodern concepts gaining currency in English literature study at the time Gow was an undergraduate, he told me: It was still thought outrageously that only a Frenchman could declare the author dead.
I have no understanding of post modernist anything. Interesting that Shakespeare resurrects John Gower as narrator of that play, to give Pericles an antique, naive feel. Deeply intertextual, but to Shakespeare just part of the job, just as me using Shakespeare in Away seemed like the right thing to do to give the play a context and to give it the freedom of form and mood that the play needed.
He stresses his desire to be readily understood on a number of levels: He has commented on the issue of Australian identity and his particular exposition of it at length in his plays in a number of interviews, and it remains a central theme as he depicts not-just-ordinary Australians lives. His fourth play, On Top of the World, has it at its heart. Both are seen to be partly true and partly self-deceiving. With some issues resolved and others not, the family unit with all its flaws will carry on providing some support for all its members.
A number of national icons are broached at speed and with a denaturalised distance that prevents conventional sentimentality about them. As the worn narratives that were always seen to give identity are deconstructed and a literary sensibility established that admits greater complexity, paradoxically a stronger and more confident sense of identity results. This reflects similar issues for turn of the century Ireland: The dialogue of a yuppie couple seems banal until we realise that they are speaking to each other in the language of motivational self-actualisation. Their neat ordered lives are disrupted when they lose a dog they are minding and while they search for it must enter less pristine, almost Dantesque, Sydney suburbs experiencing the oddities of people who do not live their manicured lives.
Grappling with family secrets, his sexuality and a mental breakdown, the main character asks a PhD student, who has written a thesis on his work, how he writes his plays. She is angry others will describe a new direction he is about to take and her work is wasted. All four plays take ordinary aspects of ordinary lives and make them both unfamiliar and dramatic. In his fifth play, Europe, suspense develops in the early Acts as an Australian man visits a French actress backstage after a performance again art about life reconstituted by art and we are never sure whether we are watching a stalker pretending intimacy, or an actress imperiously only partly remembering a former friend: The show tonight was really great.
Later acts reveal they did have an earlier fling, but she never expected or wanted him to follow her to Europe. The end of the play suggests the cycle continues as he waits for her after he is supposed to be gone. Frenchwoman Barbara is cynical. Douglas, by contrast, is upbeat: Finally Douglas breaks down and his response is violent: DOUGLAS [in a fit of anger, becoming more outraged and violent] Thinking about how lucky you are having two million years of blood-soaked history.
Counting your ruined churches and bomb craters and flaky paintings and immigrant workers. Makes me want to vomit. His rage covers the cultural centrality of Europe; its economic exploitation of a dominant position as the provider of knowledge and culture; his required supplication to it; the frustration of his constructed desire of both Barbara and the European episteme ; and the context of her imperious insulting of him, looking down on the victims of empire as barbarians. He suggests that this dynamic proposed by Hegel is a useful model for discussing the dilemma of the colonial and postcolonial subject in Ireland.
In Irish literature, the language of Modernist writers is English and their topic is the generic, modern, urban environment. Before, he was an internationalist, focusing on the subjective and not dealing with political problems of the New Ireland.
But this search was doomed from the outset by a contradiction in the project itself, a double message at its core. Postcolonial concerns are similarly prominent in the work of Michael Gow. The lived experience of Australians is not open to only one interpretation by a well-worn meta-narrative. His vision of Australia is questioning, intertextual and new, and so enriches our image of ourselves as Joyce and Beckett enrich Ireland.
In and The Fortunes of Richard Mahony he critiques the colonial narrative that has been given to us. In Away he uses Shakespeare as part of the Australian experience, and in On Top of the World and other plays he presents Australian life in unfamiliar ways. In Europe he can be seen to explicitly detail the dilemma of Australian identity in the shadow of European cultural achievements.
We are in some ways victims of our own successful marketing campaigns. Australia is one of the most urbanised populations in the world because it was settled or invaded after the Industrial Revolution, and so most Australians live a suburban-urban existence.
Much of our art, by contrast, embraces outback imagery, bushrangers, farmers and the like. Do we allow ourselves to understand ourselves as Americans and Europeans would, briefed by travelogues focussing on the exotic? Should we make ourselves spuriously exceptional, so that we are what they expect, because it is good for business? Yet the issues of foreign influence in Australia are ignored when the culture embraces obvious but largely spurious icons. Australian Literature and the Postcolonial Mind Sydney: Allen and Unwin, , Palgrave MacMillan, , Ironically Joyce pushed the high art, formalistic aspect of his work as a defence against the charge of pornography and so his work was intimately bound up with the socio-political struggles of turn of the century Ireland.
Pascal, , A Thematic Approach, Sydney: Currency, , 7. All great minds and great personalities. Currency, , 8, Currency, , is a more successful play. Currency, , 53—54 my ellipsis. Later, Robert Dixon, Prosthetic Gods: University of Queensland Press, , 2, has criticized his own book along with certain other works in the postcolonial field for too glibly conflating literary text, administrative practice and ideology. Said, Orientalism New York: Vintage Books, , consistently sees all the Westerners he writes about as orientalising their object of study and therefore he suggests that they all have the same relationship to the imperial enterprise.
Said clearly has sympathy for Richard Burton but not enough for him to escape the same judgement. Michael Gow, Away Sydney: Currency, ; All Stops Out Sydney: Currency, ; Furious Sydney: Currency, , pp. Derek Attridge Cambridge University Press, On the one hand both engender an authentication of a definable Australian culture and literature, on the other hand the validity of a distinguishable Australian literature is undermined by the construction of new spaces which are only viable in combination … The naming of new formations points to the heterogeneity of a location.
Transnational Cultural Studies, ed. Hodge returns in his latest work to this uneasy relationship of the dominant Australian meta-narratives to their history. She had access to letters that belonged to people outside the family and, through conversing with members of the du Maurier and Browning families, learnt a great deal. His obsession with Daphne worried Muriel to the extent that she decided to send her to finishing school in Paris run by Mlle Fernande Yvon She says that in a letter to Ferdy, du Maurier had confided her regret at the lack of sexual intimacy in the marriage and that after taking sleeping pills she would fall into a restless sleep and dream of her father.
However, instead of expanding on the significance of her statement, Forster moves on to discuss the difficulties Browning experienced in his role as father. She says when Daphne kissed him she found it a very agreeable experience: She says in the interview du Maurier had stated: Cook comments on a photograph taken of Daphne and Gerald in Rowse, a friend of du Maurier: What happened to Daphne was that she was deeply in love with her father; her emotional life was really entirely tied up with him … he had an absolute fixation on Daphne which she reciprocated. If she were Lucretia, then Geoffrey must be Cesare, her Borgia brother, and Gerald, Alexander, the Borgia father; a reference to the supposition that Lucretia had enjoyed incestuous relationships with both 71—2.
She questions why du Maurier wrote the novel: The overwhelmingly possessive emotional ties between her and Gerald? Her rejection of her mother?
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Cook leaves these questions for the reader to answer. Gerald would always be the perfect other. It is important to note that whilst conducting their research Horner and Zlosnik kept in close touch with Oriel Malet, a good friend of du Maurier. After implying the incestuous nature of the relationship between Daphne and Gerald, Auerbach, like Horner and Zlosnik, veers away.
Exactly what does Forster mean? What part of the truth was unacceptable that for reasons of propriety du Maurier had to omit it? This begs the question: If Julius was a cathartic experience it was not the final expunging of the father figure. Doubleday, , xvi. Robson Books, , Pan Books Ltd, A Portrait of Daphne du Maurier London: Bantam Books, , xii. Virago Press, , ; Cook, Writing, Identity and the Gothic Imagination, London: Macmillan Press Ltd, , 33—4. Pennsylvania University Press, , On the basis of collected newspaper reviews, autobiographical notes and photographic materials, correspondence and interviews, this article offers some brief answers to the questions: What were her theatrrical activities in the Old and New Worlds, and what was the resonance of her dramatic art?
Born in Berlin on 17 July as the youngest child of the barrister Dr. Salomon Kronfeld, Maria Dronke grew up in a well- established, emancipated German-Jewish family, which took a deep interest in music and theatre. Maria Dronke loved Berlin. And Berlin loved Max Reinhardt. Most significantly, the German audience recognised the merits of a modern stage director with a vision not only for stage technicalities but also for the cultivation of high ensemble-qualities and a special actor- audience relationship.
Her training for the stage was long and thorough: Helene Hermann and Dr. Carl Heine Dronke, Historical 3. Maria Dronke and the New Zealand Stage 75 It was in this framework that Maria Dronke made her debut on 17 December with a poetry reading at the Meistersaal in Berlin, in a year remarkably rich in cultural events: The performance received enthusiastic reviews from theatre critics known as notoriously stern who this time wrote: Until now nobody has spoken to us with such passionate feeling … She has a heart which does not only feel with the poet, but is able to understand poetry, a wonderful alto-voice and an appearance which deserves to be called beautiful in expression and gesture as well as in repose Kant.
Maria Dronke ended her career on the German stage in the same year. At that time, Germany was celebrating the Hauptmann-year with the production of his last play Before Sunset, a play with strong symbolic connotations in the historical context of the s. Dronke made her last appearances on the German stage in the presence of the writer, playing leading roles in his plays——Before Sunset and Florian Geyer. The following is a brief presentation of her main public works with a sampling of the three main cultural areas in which she exerted her theatrical influence: Mason, Charles Brasch, Denis Glover, etc.
The Christchurch Press in August had high praise for her vast choice of material which instantly reminds one of her Berlin debut recital: The poems in her programme ranged from a twelfth century hymn to some of the latest works of one of our younger New Zealand poets, Allen Curnow. It is probably unique in the history of Auckland that all seats for a poetry recital should have been sold out days before the event. It can happen here. It did happen here. The audience at the Lewis Eady Hall heard: From onwards she trained a generation of young actors who enriched her ensemble and subsequently emerged as prominent figures in the New Zealand professional theatre and overseas.
To name a few: Many of them testified to her strength and commitment as a drama teacher, and to their personal debt to her, among them Pat Evison who noted in her autobiography: At the time Maria started her studio, there was no professional theatre in Wellington. This counted towards the development of a productive ensemble-quality, and was also reflected in the fact that several of her students founded the first ensemble of professional actors, The New Zealand Players, with Edith Campion as leading actress and Richard Campion as director. In , the year of her first production, the New Zealand theatre groups proved ready to open up towards a modern concept following the continental example.
Maria Dronke herself was ready to answer the challenge of the new situation, bringing enthusiasm and curiosity for new ideas together with intellectual vigour and understanding of how to apply modern culture to the stage. From onwards she directed and performed in about twenty-five plays, embracing a wide range of dramatic works and exploring different styles of staging to suit every particular play: Towards the grand climax the chorus lifted the great audience to fervid feeling in the music of Adeste Fidelis, and, finally, Holy Night, and almost to a response merging them with the players in the finale.
Dronke worked with a wide range of means to capture the audience and embraced simultaneous elements of symbolist and expressionist stagings in an appropriate mixture to suit the play. Then a light shone from on high, revealing the vision of a pathway as from some great temple steps to the heavens … At intervals were heard the voices of an angelic choir from the void Auckland Star Busy People in brown robes, Tired People in grey and mauve, Suffering People in purple, Hopeful People in rose colour, and lantern bearing shepherds in costume.
The requirements of symbolist performance complemented the visual stage. Group movement and gestures co- ordinated with voice modulations, choral singing and speaking conveyed dramatic meaning while conferring a strong, sensuous impression. The play undoubtedly challenged the audience, the reviewers emphasised the strangeness and novelty of the production Auckland Star 10 , yet another event proved its lasting impact. This play was produced for the Religious Drama Society in Wellington by Maria Dronke … I have no hesitation in saying that, for me at any rate, these performances were the outstanding aesthetic experience of the year.
The strength and intensity of her personality was met with surprise and appreciation in the new world where she is still remembered for her inspiring productions and most affectionately, it seems, for her teaching. As part of the group of German-Jewish artists forced into exile and scattered around the world by war and political turmoil she still remains to be discovered in her native country.
Cambridge University Press, , Quotations from German reviews have been translated by the author. Bloom, , Oxford University Press New Zealand, , Interview with Marei Bollinger. A New Zealand Quaterly, September , Sebald and Toby Litt that, at a superficial level, a startling mixture of comparisons and differences indicate in each author innovative attempts to deal with the loss of old worlds and the problems of accepting the new.
Both writers also try to define the textual and conceptual impossibility of history to satisfactorily apprehend the past. One of the immediate and abiding contrasts between the approaches of each writer, however, is the radically different cultural perspective of the narrator protagonists. For Litt, on the other hand, the perspective of the old is rendered abrupt by a much shorter focus: Litt has been writing since Litt often deals with themes of childhood and adolescence, and dwells on the generational process of life.
Nonetheless, his fiction describes worlds that are not of themselves old——worlds that do not as in the works of W. Sebald rely on history as a thematic narrative force. The extent to which time is relevant for Litt is as a support for narrative and thematic development; his are worlds that subordinate history to a process of maintaining that sense of secession of one generation to another.
By doing so his use of time assists in establishing, not so much temporally plausible characters as diachronically plausible narrative trajectories, capable of exploring the themes postulated by often explicit, overly academic preliminary suppositions. But these narrative trajectories exist within a present that recognises history only as elapsed culture. Sebald and Toby Litt 87 specific to their novel: Henry explains that it is: To use an example: Litt employs a device in FtLH that reminds the reader of the intra-reflexive and representational limitations of published, printed text.
But this is also a disruption in chronological priority that displaces the reader in relation to the events and the narrative of the text: Readers are no longer sure whether to insert themselves prior to, or post the editorial annotations: The effect is one of dislodging a conventional narrative perspective and raising doubt as to the capacity of text to represent the world mimetically. This example leads some way to explaining why I typify Litt as writing from an amnesiac narrative present: A simpler example of this is his splitting of his first book, Adventures in Capitalism, into two sections according to early and late capitalism: Sebald and Toby Litt 89 succumbed to a dialectical synthesis; inherent paradigmatic narrative contradictions and reconceived itself according to a postmodern popular aesthetic.
The past for Litt is an avenue for political and cultural comment. Sebald deals with problems of not remembering the past; however, unlike Litt, this is a preoccupation: His fiction might, therefore, be said to accommodate narrative models and character traits that are amnesiac. However, this is a feature of post-modernity that Sebald seeks to criticise. Basing his story on the artist Max Aurach, Sebald describes an ageing Jewish artist from Manchester who lost his family and his formative identity in the Holocaust.
The narrator senses that each portrait: Sebald The effect is one of constructing a face as a means of attributing an identity to something unknown or absent: To what extent can his fiction accommodate the present? My answer to this is twofold and contradictory: Sebald and Toby Litt 91 narrate the yawning chasm separating national and state history,on the one hand, and personal loss, on the other that is beholden to a perspective that despairs of the pre sent and unfailingly——but always unsuccessfully——looks to the past.
However, his use of this old-world perspective admits the possibility of the new in ways that closely resemble attempts by Litt to do likewise. The most obvious example is the incorporation of photographic illustrations that question and destabilise the narrative: What Sebald does that Litt does not, is to remind the reader of the underlying necessity of history in the textual construction of identity.
The spectrum I describe——from the realisation of the loss of a representational standard to the flawed exultation of this loss—— approximates to the positions of Sebald and Litt. Accessed 4 December Sebald, The Emigrants trans. A Critical Companion, ed. Samuel and Shierry Weber Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, , Among numerous leishu produced in the Song Dynasty, some were relatively short and on restricted groups of topics, others longer than any which had previously appeared.
It took thirteen distinguished scholars eighteen months to bring this project to completion. These engraved woodblocks, however, were not sent to press immediately. The most authentic and influential of them is the Tan keben [The Tan Woodblock Edition], which was printed by the Ming bibliophile Tan Kai — , who made a close collation against a Song hand-copied text of all the transcripts of TPGJ available to him. TPGJ has long been held in high regard for its preservation of non-official and unorthodox materials, which may otherwise have been lost.
They were treated with contempt and carelessness as compared with Confucian classics, and as a result, hardly any of them survived in the original. The importance of TPGJ in Chinese literature lies not only in the preservation of ancient xiaoshuo writings but also in their classification.
With nearly 7, entries included in juan, TPGJ boasts the largest collection of classical Chinese narratives ever seen. Selected from various sources of different periods of time and covering a wide range of subject matter, these entries presented a great challenge to the compilers of TPGJ. Rather than follow the traditional classificatory system in the bibliographical sections of dynastic history, they drew on earlier leishu and xiaoshuo collections, and developed a theme-and-content-oriented system of classifying the xiaoshuo genre.
In this system, it is not schools of thought or stylistic features, nor authorship or dating, but subject matter alone that counts as criteria for entry classification. Accordingly, TPGJ is first divided into ninety-two major types by subject matter, and under them entries are further divided into more than one hundred and fifty sections with subheadings attached to each section, denoting their specific theme and content. This arrangement of entries marks a great breakthrough in the classification of literary works in the history of Chinese literature.
It not only avoids the problem with the traditional catalogue system confusing stylistic features with subject matters, but also makes it much easier for readers to locate an individual entry. TPGJ is essentially a collection of zhiguai [records about the strange and supernatural] tales, which account for two thirds of the juan text of TPGJ. The zhiguai entries included in TPGJ cover an extremely extensive range of subject matter, and are arranged into four major groups: Daoism as a religion aims at obtaining the Dao and ascending to Heaven [de dao sheng tian]. Immortals are held in high regard and credited with various supernatural power, and to a Daoist practitioner nothing is more appealing than to live a long and healthy life in this world and eventually to become an immortal free of worldly cares.
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The Daoist way of life, especially its search for longevity and immortality, had helped it find favour with Chinese emperors ever since the Qin Dynasty. Daoism was firmly established as the official religion of the imperial court with the support of the royal family of the Tang Dynasty — , who claimed to be descendants of Li Er, better known as Laozi the author of the Daode jing [Classic of the Way and Virtue] and the legendary founder of Daoism. Due to the great influence and popularity of Daoism, TPGJ devoted the first eighty-six juan, as shown below in Table 1, to accounts of Daoist masters, priests, immortals, and practitioners with focus on their making and taking elixirs of life, exercising breath control and magic arts, going on a special diet for longevity and immortality, or retreating from the madding crowd into remote mountains or deep valleys to live as a hermit on dews and herbs.
Sexual union is not only a union of female and male bodies but a union of their minds and souls as well. The only way out of this suffering world is to follow and practice in this life the Buddhist teachings, or Dharma, so as to enter the realm of nirvana, an absolute spiritual state free from incarnation and reincarnation.
Reading and chanting Buddhist sutras is thus part of daily life for Buddhist monks, nuns and practitioners. In addition to Daoism and Buddhism, folk beliefs in wu and guai were also widespread in ancient China. In contrast, entries recognised as zhiren [records about men] and bowu [knowledge-broadening] tales add up to one hundred and twenty- four juan, constituting the remaining one third of this multi-volume xiaoshuo encyclopaedia, as shown in Table 5: Tales about Men and the World Juan No. In respect of state ideologies and religions, Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism had co-existed with each other since the Eastern Han Dynasty 25— C.
As a native religion, Daoism had never lacked believers and followers in imperial China. Confucianism, after a decline during the Six Dynasties, revived and regained its dominant position over other schools of thought in Tang and Song times. Buddhism, although originally a foreign religion from India, had by the end of the Six Dynasties successfully integrated with Chinese culture and been accepted as a domestic religion. Adherents of the three religions used the tale as a tool to promote their own claims and to expose the pretensions of their rivals in their struggle for support and survival, which gave rise to a persistent prosperity of religious literature in early and early medieval China.
The compilation of the juan TPGJ came of the great efforts by Song scholars to collect and classify classical Chinese narratives dating from pre-Qin to early Song times. Li Fang et al. Shanghai Ancient Literature Publishing House, , 1. Jiangsu Ancient Literature Publishing House, , China Book Company, , China Book Company, , 6. Shanghai Commercial Press, , Juan 3. Jiangsu Book Company , Juan Shanghai Commercial Press, , Juan 2. Houghton Mifflin Company, , A 6-juan text with a total of 37 entries is included in the Dao zang [Daoist Canon], and twenty-seven entries from this book find their way into Juan of the Daoist encyclopaedia Yunji qiqian [The Bookcase of the Clouds with the Seven Labels].
Livia Kohn, Daoism Handbook, ed. Brill, , Shanghai Ancient Literature Publishing House, , — The Edwin Mellen Press, , The unusual use of the passive voice in Japanese has an impact on the way of conveying the sense of loss. If we look closely at the events that took place in Japan during the period, we can see that what was lost was not confined to the political and economic arena. Overall confidence in society was also undermined. There was a strong feeling that the fundamental trust in society has been lost. Some thought that the Lost Decade was going to be the lost fifteen years with no light at the end of the tunnel, 3 and many were struggling to predict the future.
As I see it, the big question here is whether and how culture facilitates or blocks, guides or misleads this quest for self. This paper looks at this new practice of Japanese language both in private and public sectors in relation to social changes and efforts to overcome difficulties that the changes brought about. Following that, I look at similar practices in the public sector, and examine specific rhetoric in policy documents showing continuity between public and private sectors in terms of usage.
The book became a bestseller because of its eye-catching but simple title and reverse conception of old age. Traditionally, the Japanese suffix ryoku is combined with one or two kanji Chinese characters , indicating such qualities depending on the combinations of words. In the printing, which is the fifth edition, the total number of words with the suffix increased to One word was deleted and nine words were added, all technical terms.
Among the list of words, there was no unusual combination with the suffix, and the word eigo-ryoku English proficiency or competency was not included even though it has been widely used at least for the last twenty years, as will be discussed later in this paper. Attaching a suffix is one of the grammatical means for creating new words in Japanese. What is new about the roujin-ryoku boom is that it is a language practice using kanji, part of traditional Japanese. This practice creates a sharp contrast with the phenomenon of excessive use of foreign words or loanwords in contemporary Japanese society, which are usually written in katakana, a type of Japanese cursive syllabary.
Both pawaa appu [power-up] and uuman pawaa [woman power] have made entries in Japanese dictionaries. Throughout history, Japanese have borrowed words from foreign languages starting with Chinese, and in contemporary Japanese society English is the dominant source language for loanwords. The Agency explains that by using the language of a country which the writer believes superior, the writer attempts to create a culturally superior image in his or her writing.
The Agency discourages using foreign words that most Japanese people are not familiar with because it makes sentences difficult to understand. English loanwords do not merely add western flavour to the language, and the ways English loanwords are used are quite complex. They are used as part of the communicative strategies of Japanese people to achieve certain goals in communication. According to Stanlaw, one of the reasons for the use of English words in Japanese is that individuals apparently feel free to use them in creative and highly personal ways.
Therefore, the Japanese conception of internationalisation and the motivation for promoting internationalisation both in Japan and the international community were based on the view that Japan and the rest of the world are distinct entities. This view has not changed since the Lost Decade. As certain language practices can reflect the direction of the nation in the period concerned, it is possible to draw a parallel between the increased tendency to use English loanwords during the promotion of internationalisation and the ryoku boom in the era of globalisation. It looked inward instead.
The document stated that if Japan manages to gain world recognition of the positive qualities of its people and society, Japan can work on its problem within the country without subjecting itself to the powerful forces of globalisation. The new ryoku boom can be seen in the same light in terms of the efforts to regain power once it has been lost.
The Meanings of New Vocabulary The new practice of using the suffix ryoku has spread across all possible fields: In particular, it is often used commercially, such as in book titles and advertisements, aiming at an eye-catching effect. Internet space, which is one of the new media of communication, can be both private and public because of its nature.
Many users of personal blogs appear to experiment with the new ryoku words extensively to express their personal views in their own ways. The words are used in such personal ways that they can be understood only by certain audiences in certain contexts. Because of limited space here, it is not possible to list all words I have found.
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It can be said, however, that the number of new vocabulary items easily exceeds two hundred. In other words, the possibilities for making new words with -ryoku are endless. The majority of such new words are created by combining kanji nouns with the suffix, e. The new Japanese word focuses on Japanese traditional practices while the English loanword indicates exotic healing devices. The new use of kanji, therefore, suggests a parallel to the inward-looking attitude of the Japanese government to overcoming difficulties in the era of globalisation, as mentioned before.
Apart from the nature of word play, there are some common aspects among these words. If we look at two specific aspects, the vocabulary list can be divided into two groups. One is a group of words where people can easily guess the meanings but not necessarily agree on the same definitions Group A , and another group are words of totally unexpected combination with the suffix, where people can only speculate on the meaning Group B. These words are all about ability or competency. Since there are particular social issues behind those words, it is not possible to understand the meanings without knowledge of current affairs.
The word ijime-ryoku [bullying power] has a different story. When I first found this word in a personal blog on the website, the implications of the word puzzled me. The word daigaku-ryoku [university power] reflects current educational problems, the shortage of students in particular. The word appeared in the advertisement of a private university for prospective students with the message that the university possess power to make a change in the society.
As mentioned earlier, a book title is one of the effective ways to spread a new word and its meaning, and usually authors explain or define the new word in their books. Here the word is a combination of a verb and a noun, not a suffix, and it is not pronounced as ryoku, but uses the same kanji. The word is used with quotation marks in Japanese text and the English translation is not available since the section is not included in the English abbreviated version.
These examples of the new practice of ryoku indicate that there is continuity between public and private sectors in terms of the acceptance of the new expression, and both sectors have applied the practice in attempts to restore some kind of vitality to people and society even though the actual meanings are not necessarily clear. As I mentioned at the beginning, the word is not a new word even though it has not yet made an entry into Japanese dictionaries.
English learners in Japan are constantly assessed for their eigo-ryoku as if it is measurable, even though it has never been clearly defined. Many teachers and students do not know how they can gain English ability or how they can improve their ability. According to Yamada, this is because adequate discussions have not been carried out to clarify the definition of the word.
Retrieved 15 September , from http: The survey also shows that among young people there was a change in their attitudes toward employment in a traditional sense. See Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Heisei 10 nen ban roudou keizai no bunseki [Analysis of labour economy of fiscal year]. Retrieved May 13, , from http: Retrieved February 24, , from hppt: It features both pessimistic and optimistic predictions. Retrieved February 24, from http: University of Hawaii Press, , xv. Retrieved February 18, from http: Language and Culture Contact Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, Iwanani shoten, , fifth edition.
Ookurashou insatsu kyoku, , David Blocks and Deborah Cameron London: Routledge, , 13— M Tuis and James W. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, , The Frontier within, Retrieved February 20, , from http: National Printing Bureau, Retrieved February 2, , from http: The factors examined are: Differences between those who learn a L2 through instruction and those who acquire it informally have been documented by various researchers. For example, Pica 1 compared the production of English grammatical morphology by adult native speakers of Spanish under three conditions of exposure to English: She found that errors of morpheme over suppliance in inappropriate contexts were more prevalent among instruction-only subjects, whereas the naturalistic group tended to omit plural s-endings on nouns.
Shirai and Kurono 2 examined previous studies on the acquisition of English aspect, and concluded that untutored learners tend to overuse progressive marking 3. From the findings mentioned above, we can hypothesise that those who learn a L2 solely through instruction will rely on their grammatical knowledge to judge the grammaticality of a sentence, whereas those who learn a L2 informally will not, as they are less likely to possess explicit grammatical knowledge.
In-country experience is not usually mentioned as a factor influencing the use of these strategies. However, when Kubota, Skoutarides and Peters compared strategies used by Japanese language learners in Japan with those in Australia, they identified differences such as the use of dictionaries, and other language resources. Grammaticality judgement tests are a popular research tool. However, the use of a grammaticality judgement test to measure proficiency is still controversial in terms of reliability and validity.
Aim The aims of this paper are threefold. They are to establish: Grammaticality Judgements in Japanese Participants in this study Data were collected from participants who fall into the following four categories: Two of the participants fell into the first category, two in the second, four in the third, and two in the fourth. Studied at a 1 private language school for 6 years.
Studied at a university for four years. Has been to Japan five times for a total of 4 months for holidays since Has been to Japan three times: Total time spent in Japan was 3 and a half months. Never learned Japanese formally. Total time spent in Japan was 3 years. Married to a Japanese. Total time spent in Japan was 8 years. Went to Japan for one year after finishing high school.
After coming back to Australia, studied at a university for three years. Then, studied at a university in Japan for one year. Total time spent in Japan was over 2 years. Spent three years studying Japanese at a university in Japan and came to Australia. Went back to Japan to conduct research for two years, then came back to Australia. Majored in Japanese at a university in Australia. Undertook a Japanese language teachers training course in Japan for one year. Total time spent in Japan was around 4 years. Went to a language school in Japan for 4 months. Undertook a university course in Australia for one semester.
Total time spent in Japan was 14 months.
Arno Endler
Went to a Japanese kindergarten in Japan for 8 months. Went to a full time Japanese primary school in Australia, then went to an Australian secondary school in Australia. Total time spent in Japan was around 1 year. Went to a Saturday Japanese school until junior high school while attending an Australian school.
Total time spent in Japan was less than 6 months. All except one are university graduates.
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Materials used in the study The grammaticality judgment test used in this study contains twenty-two dialogues. It comprises fourteen "-te iru" questions, devised by the author with reference to Koyama's test, 13 and fifteen wa and ga 14 questions, devised by Sakamoto 15 and slightly modified by the author. The participants were judged on a total of twenty- nine grammatical items. Research Procedure The research procedure was as follows. They were encouraged to say anything that came to mind while processing their judgements.
This session was audio-taped. These interviews were also audio-taped. The think-aloud sessions as well as the interviews were transcribed. As a result, the following types of data were obtained. Examples of each category in my data are as follows. Utterances in Japanese are italicised, followed by the English translation in brackets. I do not know how I can explain this. It is extremely difficult to explain, but since I have been using Japanese for a long time, I know this should be ga.
OK, I am leaving it. For some reason for me chigau to omoimashita ga chigaudatta [I thought that I was wrong and I was wrong] probably comes to mind. Because omotte imasu [be thinking] is to use for other people and here this person is talking about what they think themselves.
I will be probably looking at the social standings and my own experiences. That would be more like a student saying. But other than that, it seems to me to be OK. I think that one is OK, or maybe Kakyotte imasu [is attending] would be better. But I think that one is OK, so I will leave that one. I think it is OK. The following table shows the number of times each category was used by each participant. Table 3 lists the results according to the scores on the grammaticality judgment test from participants with lower marks to higher marks. This result was to be expected, as those participants with fewer language resources were more often forced to resort to guesswork.
The last factor to analyse is that of the influence of in-country experience on the strategies employed. All participants had been to Japan for periods ranging from three and a half months to eight years. Table 4 differs from Table 3 in that it has been rearranged according to the length of stay in Japan. However, in terms of exposure to Japanese language, the time they spent in Japan is irrelevant, so their information is omitted from Table 4. It is worth noting that the time the participants spent in Japan does not necessarily correlate to their language proficiency.
Table 4 reveals that there is a clear distinction between those who spent less than two years and those who spent more than two years in Japan. Discussion When the effects of the form of the L2 acquisition were examined, it revealed that three strategies marked the different approaches taken by those who had learned Japanese in untutored settings, and those who had learned it through instruction.
Even though one of them studied Japanese formerly after returning to Australia, she continued to rely on her ear to make grammaticality judgments. This suggests that, like CBs, those who learned Japanese in Japan without prior knowledge of Japanese may be accustomed to relying on the sound of the sentence to make a grammaticality judgement. This requires further investigation. This indicates that people with low proficiency use their L1 to make grammaticality judgements in their L2, whereas those with higher proficiency in their L2 do not.
In fact, four participants with high proficiency used Japanese to think aloud, even though they were encouraged to use whichever language was easiest for them. This suggests that the full effect of in-country experiences only occurs for those who spend more than two years in a country where the target language is spoken. Results from my study affirm this suggestion, as there is a clear distinction between the strategies used by the participants who had spent more than two years in Japan and those who had been there for shorter periods.
As we have seen, there is evidence that the form of L2 acquisition, proficiency in the language, and the length of stay in the country where the target language is spoken all affect the process of judging grammaticality. Conlusion This paper examines, qualitatively, the processes by which English— Japanese bilinguals make grammaticality judgements. It investigates whether or not factors such as the way a person learns a L2, their proficiency in the L2, and the length of their in-country experience influences the way they process grammaticality judgments. Some evidence of the influence of all three factors was found.
Due to the small number of participants, the findings of this study are not conclusive. To some degree the success of this type of study depends on the number of participants. Recruitment of participants who had learnt Japanese in untutored settings was extremely difficult, but it was even more difficult to find participants with high proficiency in Japanese who had learned Japanese without in- country experiences. This study was also limited by the small number of grammatical items being investigated. In order to confirm the evidence gathered in this study, there is a need for future studies to investigate a wider range of grammatical items, drawing on a larger pool of participants.
Blackwell Publishers, , — Communities, cultures, critiques Vol. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publisher, , — Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publisher, —5. Oxford University Press, , SFL views language as a system, that is, a resource that allows us to create meanings through choices e. Such an analysis makes an important contribution to our understanding of how candidates may be successful or not at their job interviews and be offered the position for which they are applying.
Three posts also involved postgraduate research at a host university in France. One candidate was a native speaker of French, whereas three candidates were native speakers of English. Each interview was conducted by one or two interviewers. All four interviews involved an interviewer who was a native speaker of French. Three interviews involved a second interviewer who was a native speaker of English. Lastly, two interviews were held in French only, while two interviews were held in French and English. The total duration of the interviews is 1h and 23 min see Table 1.
All the interviews were audio-taped and video-recorded. The language of the interviews was then analysed using SFL theory. Interview context and participants A theoretical framework for analysing attitudes Analyses of expressions of attitude draw on Appraisal theory. System of Attitude The system of attitude concerns both positive evaluations as shown in examples 1, and 7 taken from the interview data and negative ones as in 2 and 6. Note that each category of attitude includes various subcategories introduced hereafter as required.
Lastly, attitudes are gradable, so they can be amplified as underlined below or, on the contrary, downgraded. Most attitudes expressed were positive eighty-three vs. This reflects advice from the popular literature that candidates be positive in job interviews, since this might be taken as an indication of their behaviour as employees. Oui, je veux bien la croire a priori. Not all the candidates use these terms …. Yes, I really want to believe her. She shows dissatisfaction through inscribed Attitude, specifically negative Appreciation and negative Affect.
Her dissatisfaction is reinforced through multiple instances of Graduation underlined in the text. Demonstrations of Confidence vs. The overtones which the word emotional has acquired in English are a good illustration of the disapproval of public display of emotions, characteristic of Anglo-Saxon culture. Statements of Capability vs. Incapability Twenty percent of all attitudes expressed were judgements. This contributed to establishing professional co-membership with her interviewers. It deals with her ability in French language. Then, although she says that she is quite comfortable with reading French, she admits her difficulty with writing—a negative Judgement compounded by an intensifier.
Mouton de Gruyter, , —35; John J. Paul Drew and John Heritage Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, , — Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse, ed. Susan Hunston and Geoff Thompson Oxford: Oxford University Press, , — Names of institutions have also been omitted. John Benjamins, , 1—27; J. Martin and David Rose, Working with Discourse: Meaning beyond the Clause London, New York: Continuum, ; J.
White, The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English New York: A Functional Perspective, ed. Australian and New Zealand Edition Warriewood: Hungry Minds Pty Ltd, Their answers, as quoted in this paper, do not call their skills or abilities into question in any way.
Jordens, Reading Spoken Stories for Values: Mouton de Gruyter, , 53—4. I look at this change through work by two scholars, Thomas 1 and Blamires. Literary bilingualism also implies widespread social acceptance. The traditional learning of French in England, and, indeed, Australia, is probably a good example of literary bilingualism.
Blamires makes a similar distinction as regards the position of German in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
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He suggests that during the seventeenth century, German was more or less a utility language, learnt haphazardly, but by the s German had grown to a language of culture, learnt because of its prestige. This he connects intimately with the new presence of the House of Hanover on the English throne.
I expand this definition further to encompass the idea that vernacular bilingualism implies a high level of oral skills, not necessarily written skills, whereas literary bilingualism implies not only rule-based, formal learning, but also application of the language in cultural matters, such as the reading of literature 3. In many regards, I agree with Blamires. I agree that Aedler published this grammar during the period that German was subject to vernacular bilingualism, and its publication, I argue, was a legitimation strategy for the German language in England, as in the eyes of its author, it had yet to prove to the English that it was a language capable of standardisation and polish.
While Blamires suggests the s as a turning point in the public view of German , this time of critical mass is not exactly mirrored in the books people used to learn German. There is, for example, no explosion of text books at this time. We know that there was a definite demand, possibly a small one, for skills in German from the s onwards; evidence of small classes of learners by Benedictus Beiler, the author of two editions of a German grammar and , 4 appears from , earlier than Blamires suggests. Beiler did indeed teach a small number of private scholars through his work first as teacher at the German School in London and then as Clerk of the German Church in Trinity Lane Beiler, 2nd ed.
There is otherwise no special change in the texts until the s, which is then a decisive change in how the language is taught, and then again another change about , when who is taught, why they are taught, and what they are taught alters significantly.
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This critical mass might be measured in other ways, perhaps in terms of the number or scope of translations from German to English, but it is not evident from the textbooks. Learn more about Amazon Prime. Get fast, free shipping with Amazon Prime. Get to Know Us. English Choose a language for shopping. Not Enabled Word Wise: Amazon Music Stream millions of songs. Amazon Advertising Find, attract, and engage customers. Amazon Drive Cloud storage from Amazon. Alexa Actionable Analytics for the Web.
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