Why Slovenia? The Power of Freedom

However, many of its units were still stuck in vulnerable positions across Slovenia. The Slovenian defence ministry ordered:. At all locations where RS Republic of Slovenia armed forces Slovenian Territorial Defence have the tactical advantage, offensive actions against enemy units and facilities will be carried out. The enemy will be summoned to surrender, the shortest deadline possible for surrender given and action taken using all available weapons.

While in action, any necessary arrangements will be made to evacuate and protect the civilians. Additional fighting took place throughout the day.

Ten-Day War

At Medvedjek in central Slovenia, another YPA tank column came under attack at a truck barricade, where air raids killed six truck drivers. Four YPA soldiers were killed, among them the commander of the armored column, and nearly more surrendered. Some sources claim that this was the decisive battle of the war. The border crossing at Holmec was captured by Slovenian TO forces. The Yugoslav Air Force carried out attacks at a number of locations across the country, most notably at Brnik Airport , where two journalists from Austria and Germany Nikolas Vogel and Norbert Werner were killed and four Adria Airways airliners were seriously damaged.

By the end of the day, the YPA still held many of its positions but was rapidly losing ground. YPA was beginning to experience problems with desertions — many Slovenian members of the YPA quit their units or simply changed sides - and both the troops on the ground and the leadership in Belgrade appeared to have little idea of what to do next. The outbreak of the war galvanised diplomatic efforts by the European Community to find an end to the crisis.

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Three EC foreign ministers met with Slovenian and Yugoslav government representatives in Zagreb during the night of 28—29 June and agreed on a ceasefire plan, but this was not put into practice. In the morning, the Slovenians achieved several significant military successes. YPA special forces attempted a maritime landing at Hrvatini but were ambushed and repulsed by the Slovenians. The YPA issued an ultimatum to Slovenia, demanding an immediate cessation of hostilities by In response, the Slovenian Assembly adopted a resolution calling for a peaceful solution to the crisis that did not jeopardise Slovenian independence, and rejected the YPA ultimatum.

Skirmishing continued in several places during the day. The entire YPA garrison at Dravograd — 16 officers and men, plus equipment — surrendered, and the garrisons at Tolmin and Bovec also fell to the Slovenians. The weapons captured from the garrisons were quickly re-issued to the Slovenian forces. In the meantime, the YPA's leadership sought permission to change the tempo of its operations. The heaviest fighting of the war to date took place during 2 July. During the rest of the day there were a number of major set-backs for the YPA. However, this was rejected by the YPA leadership, which vowed to "take control" and crush Slovenian resistance.

It never arrived; according to the official account, this was due to mechanical breakdowns. In the evening, the YPA agreed to a ceasefire and a withdrawal to barracks. In a separate incident not far from Radenci, in the village of Hrastje-Mota , a Yugoslav Mi-8 helicopter developed mechanical problems and was forced to land.

The helicopter was seized by the Slovene military, but was deemed not suitable for the newly born air force and handed back to Belgrade on 13 August. With a ceasefire now in force, the two sides disengaged. Slovenian forces took control of all of the country's border crossings, and YPA units were allowed to withdraw peacefully to barracks and to cross the border to Croatia. Slovenian and Croatian independence were agreed to. The terms were distinctly favourable to Slovenia; it was agreed that Slovenia and Croatia would postpone their independence for three months—which in practical terms had little real impact—and the Slovenian police and armed forces Slovenian Territorial Defence were recognised as sovereign on their territory.

It was agreed that all Yugoslav military units would leave Slovenia, with the Yugoslav government setting a deadline of the end of October to complete the process. The Slovenian government insisted that the withdrawal should proceed on its terms; the JNA was not allowed to take much of its heavy weaponry and equipment, which was later either deployed locally or sold to other Yugoslav republics. The withdrawal began about ten days later and was completed by 26 October. Due to the short duration and low intensity of the war, casualties were not high.

According to Slovenian estimates, the YPA suffered 44 fatalities and wounded, while the Slovenians had 18 killed and wounded.

Twelve foreign nationals were killed in the conflict, principally journalists and Bulgarian truck drivers who had strayed into the line of fire. According to post-war assessments made by the YPA, its material losses amounted to 31 tanks, 22 armoured personnel carriers, 6 helicopters, 6, infantry weapons, 87 artillery pieces and air defence weapons damaged, destroyed or confiscated. Property damage was not heavy, due to the scattered and short-term nature of the fighting. The border station at Holmec was the location of an alleged war crime perpetrated by Slovenian TO forces, filmed by the Austrian public broadcasting station ORF.

Video footage shows a small group of YPA soldiers standing or walking slowly with raised hands, holding up a white sheet in an apparent attempt to surrender. Moments later, gunfire is heard and the soldiers fall or jump to the ground. Neither the origin of the gunfire nor its exact effect are clearly visible on the video segment.

Slovene officials maintain that the YPA soldiers jumped for cover and were not hit, and that the matter was thoroughly investigated years ago. However, the incident sparked renewed public debate after the footage was shown on Serbian TV station B92 in , with many claiming that the soldiers were shot and killed by Slovenian TO troops and that Slovenia is trying to cover up the affair. The fate of the YPA soldiers identified on the footage is disputed. One report claims that the soldiers are still alive, 15 years after the conflict. But they never ventured beyond Place de l'Etoile.

The 16th remained eerily quiet. Contemporary accounts describe the mood there as being like that of a small provincial city in the month of August. Have contemporary upheavals, crises and anxieties shaken this quarter in the age of globalism? Confrontation of revolutionary fashion and politics Then the chorus moved on to their second stop, the gardens of the Palais Galliera, where they were enthusiastically expected by City of Paris employees and warmly welcomed by flabbergasted crowds, who ended up singing three songs with them, including Bella Ciao.

The gardens were chosen because they are public and lie below the Palais Galliera fashion museum, which was hosting a show devoted to Martin Margiela, considered a revolutionary designer for the past 20 years. This stretch was chosen because it is lined by the embassies of several Arab or officially Muslim countries, including Egypt and Iran.

Ethnic Slovenes in refugees camps led by Italy , however, were treated as state enemies, and several thousands died of malnutrition and diseases between and After the outbreak of World War I , the Austrian Parliament was dissolved and civil liberties suspended. Many Slovene political activists, especially in Carniola and Styria , were imprisoned by Austro-Hungarian authorities on charges of pro- Serbian or pan-Slavic sympathies.

Hundreds of thousands of Slovene conscripts were drafted in the Austro-Hungarian Army , and over 30, of them lost their lives in the course of the war. The Slovene People's Party launched a movement for self-determination, demanding the creation of a semi-independent South Slavic state under Habsburg rule. The proposal was picked up by most Slovene parties, and a mass mobilization of Slovene civil society, known as the Declaration Movement , followed. By early , more than , signatures were collected in favor of the Slovene People Party's proposal.

During the War, some Slovenes served as volunteers in the Serbian army, while a smaller group led by Captain Ljudevit Pivko , served as volunteers in the Italian Army. In the final year of the war, many predominantly Slovene regiments in the Austro-Hungarian Army staged a mutiny against their military leadership; the best-known mutiny of Slovene soldiers was the Judenburg Rebellion in May On 29 October independence was declared by a national gathering in Ljubljana, and by the Croatian parliament, declaring the establishment of the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.

Slovenes whose territory fell under the rule of neighboring states Italy, Austria and Hungary, were subjected to policies of assimilation. After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in late , an armed dispute started between the Slovenes and German Austria for the regions of Lower Styria and southern Carinthia. In November , Rudolf Maister seized the city of Maribor and surrounding areas of Lower Styria in the name of the newly formed Yugoslav state. Around the same time a group of volunteers led by Franjo Malgaj attempted to take control of southern Carinthia.

Fighting in Carinthia lasted between December and June , when the Slovene volunteers and the regular Serbian Army managed to occupy the city of Klagenfurt. In compliance with the Treaty of Saint-Germain , the Yugoslav forces had to withdraw from Klagenfurt, while a referendum was to be held in other areas of southern Carinthia. With the Treaty of Trianon , on the other hand, Kingdom of Yugoslavia was awarded the Slovene-inhabited Prekmurje region, which had belonged to Hungary since the 10th century.

In exchange for joining the Allied Powers in the First World War , the Kingdom of Italy , under the secret Treaty of London and later Treaty of Rapallo , was granted rule over much of the Slovene territories. These included a quarter of the Slovene ethnic territory, including areas that were exclusively ethnic Slovene.

The population of the affected areas was approximately , [16] of the total population of 1. Despite it, Slovenes managed to maintain a high level of cultural autonomy , and both economy and the arts prospered. The constitution was abolished, civil liberties suspended, while the centralist pressure intensified.

Slovenia was renamed to Drava Banovina. During the whole interwar period, Slovene voters strongly supported the conservative Slovene People's Party , which unsuccessfully fought for the autonomy of Slovenia within a federalized Yugoslavia. In , however, the Slovene People's Party joined the pro-regime Yugoslav Radical Community , opening the space for the development of a left wing autonomist movement. In the s, the economic crisis created a fertile ground for the rising of both leftist and rightist radicalisms.

Between and , left liberal , Christian left and agrarian forces established close relations with members of the illegal Communist party, aiming at establishing a broad anti-Fascist coalition. The main territory of Slovenia, being the most industrialized and westernized among others less developed parts of Yugoslavia became the main center of industrial production: The interwar period brought a further industrialization in Slovenia, with a rapid economic growth in the s followed by a relatively successful economic adjustment to the economic crisis.

This development however affected only certain areas, especially the Ljubljana Basin , the Central Sava Valley , parts of Slovenian Carinthia , and the urban areas around Celje and Maribor. Elsewhere, agriculture and forestry remained the predominant economic activities. Nevertheless, Slovenia emerged as one of the most prosperous and economically dynamic areas in Yugoslavia, profiting from a large Balkan market.

Arts and literature also prospered, as did architecture. The two largest Slovenian cities, Ljubljana and Maribor, underwent an extensive program of urban renewal and modernization. Not only partially, but also exclusively ethnic Slovene territories that included a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes renamed "Yugoslavia" in state".

Trieste was at the end of 19th century de facto the largest Slovene city, having had more Slovene inhabitants than even Ljubljana. The Slovene minority in Italy lacked any minority protection under international or domestic law. After all Slovene minority organizations in Italy had been suppressed, the militant anti-fascist organization TIGR was formed in in order to fight Fascist violence.

The anti-Fascist guerrilla movement continued throughout the late s and s. Slovenia was the only present-day European nation and the only part of Yugoslavia that was completely absorbed and annexed into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy , and Hungary during World War II. The ethnic German Gottscheers were moved out of the province, because Hitler opposed having them in the Italian occupation zone. On 27 April in the Province of Ljubljana , occupied by Fascist Italy, the National Liberation Front was organized to carry out a liberation struggle, forming the Slovene Partisans and creating structures of a future state in liberated areas.

The Province of Ljubljana saw the deportation of The operation, one of the most drastic in Europe, filled up many Italian concentration camps , such as Rab , Gonars , Monigo , Renicci di Anghiari and elsewhere. Slovenes were transported to several camps in Saxony , where they were forced to work on German farms or in factories run by German industries from — The forced labourers were not always kept in formal concentration camps, but often just vacant buildings where they slept until the next day's labour.

Toward the end of the war, these camps were liberated by American and Soviet Army troops. Repatriated refugees returned to Yugoslavia to find their homes in shambles. Some Slovenes collaborated with the occupying powers. The German-sponsored Slovene Home Guard had 21, members at the peak of its power.

More than 30, partisans died fighting Axis forces and their collaborators; during WWII, approximately 8 percent of Slovenes died. In , Yugoslavia liberated itself and shortly thereafter became a nominally federal Communist state. Slovenia joined the federation as a socialist republic ; its own Communist Party was formed in These suspects never saw anything like Nuremberg trials.

The British government, at the beginning of the Cold War , saw in Pietro Badoglio , one of these suspects, a guarantee of an anti-communist post-war Italy. Both states tactically "exchanged" the impunity of the Italians accused by Yugoslavia for the renunciation to investigate the foibe and avoid investigations and responsibility on their part. So both Italian , Allied and Yugoslav war and post-war mass killings were forgotten in order to maintain a "good neighbour" policy and good relations.

Due to the Communist violence towards the opponents of the Liberation Front as well as anti-revolutionary sentiments, some of the residents of cities as well as clericals and major farmers formed several anti-communist groups that collaborated with the occupying forces.

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After , the situation in the Slovene Lands has been characterised as a civil war. After the war, large ideologically and ethnically motivated massacres took place. Excluding Slovenes under Italian rule , between 20, and 25, Slovenes were killed by Nazis or Italian Fascists , counting only civilian victims. A socialist state was established, but because of the Tito-Stalin split , economic and personal freedoms were broader than in the Eastern Bloc. The towns of Koper , Izola , and Piran , Italian-populated urban enclaves saw mass ethnic Italian and anti-Communist emigration part of the Istrian Exodus due to the ongoing Foibe massacres and other revenge against them for Italian war crimes and due to their fear of Communism, which by had nationalised all private property.

The dispute over the port of Trieste however remained opened until , until the short-lived Free Territory of Trieste was divided among Italy and Yugoslavia, thus giving Slovenia access to the sea.

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This division was ratified only in with the Treaty of Osimo , which gave a final legal sanction to Slovenia's long disputed western border. From the s, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia enjoyed a relatively wide autonomy. Between and , a wave of political repressions took place in Slovenia and in Yugoslavia. Thousands of people were imprisoned for their political beliefs.

Several tens of thousands of Slovenes left Slovenia immediately after the war in fear of Communist persecution. Many of them settled in Argentina , which became the core of Slovenian anti-Communist emigration. More than 50, more followed in the next decade, frequently for economic reasons, as well as political ones.

These later waves of Slovene immigrants mostly settled in Canada and in Australia , but also in other western countries. In , the Tito-Stalin split took place. In the first years following the split, the political repression worsened, as it extended to Communists accused of Stalinism. Hundreds of Slovenes were imprisoned in the concentration camp of Goli Otok , together with thousands of people of other nationalities.

Among the show trials that took place in Slovenia between and , the most important were the Nagode Trial against democratic intellectuals and left liberal activists and the Dachau trials — , where former inmates of Nazi concentration camps were accused of collaboration with the Nazis. Many members of the Roman Catholic clergy suffered persecution. The case of bishop of Ljubljana Anton Vovk , who was doused with gasoline and set on fire by Communist activists during a pastoral visit to Novo Mesto in January , echoed in the western press.

Between and , a forced collectivization was attempted. After its failure, a policy of gradual liberalization was followed. In the late s, Slovenia was the first of the Yugoslav republics to begin a process of relative pluralization. A decade of industrialisation was accompanied also by a fervent cultural and literary production with many tensions between the regime and the dissident intellectuals.

From the late s onward, dissident circles started to be formed, mostly around short-lived independent journals, such as Revija 57 — , which was the first independent intellectual journal in Yugoslavia and one of the first of this kind in the Communist bloc, [28] and Perspektive — By the late s, the reformist faction gained control of the Slovenian Communist Party , launching a series of reforms, aiming at the modernization of Slovenian society and economy.

A new economic policy, known as workers self-management started to be implemented under the advice and supervision of the main theorist of the Yugoslav Communist Party, the Slovene Edvard Kardelj. In , this trend was stopped by the conservative faction of the Slovenian Communist Party, backed by the Yugoslav Federal government. A period known as the "Years of Lead" Slovene: In the s, Slovenia experienced a rise of cultural pluralism.

Numerous grass-roots political, artistic and intellectual movements emerged, including the Neue Slowenische Kunst , the Ljubljana school of psychoanalysis , and the Nova revija intellectual circle. The Yugoslav economic crisis of the s increased the struggles within the Yugoslav Communist regime regarding the appropriate economic measures to be undertaken.