The most convincing evidence, however, from those early days is furnished by the liturgies of the West and the East, the basic principles of which reach back to Apostolic times and in which the sacrifical idea of the Eucharistic celebration found unadulterated and decisive expression see LITURGIES. We have therefore traced the Masses from the present to the earliest times, thus establishing its Apostolic origin, which in turn goes back again to the Last Supper.
The nature of the Mass In its denial of the true Divinity of Christ and of every supernatural institution, modern unbelief endeavours, by means of the so-called historico-religious method, to explain the character of the Eucharist and the Eucharist sacrifice as the natural result of a spontaneous process of development in the Christian religion. In this connection it is interesting to observe how these different and conflicting hypotheses refute one another, with the rather startling result at the end of it all that a new, great, and insoluble problem looms of the investigation.
While some discover the roots of the Mass in the Jewish funeral feasts O. Holtzmann or in Jewish Essenism Bousset, Heitmuller, Wernle , others delve in the underground strata of pagan religions. Here, however, a rich variety of hypotheses is placed at their disposal. In this age of Pan-Babylonism it is not at all surprising that the germinal ideas of the Christian communion should be located in Babylon, where in the Adapa myth on the tablet of Tell Amarna mention has been found of "water of life" and "food of life" Zimmern.
Brandt fancy they have found a still more striking analogy in the "bread and water" Patha and Mambuha of the Mandaean religion. The view most widely held today among upholders of the historico-religious theory is that the Eucharist and the Mass originated in the practices of the Persian Mithraism Dieterich, H. Holtzmann, Pfleiderer, Robertson, etc. Tertullian in anger ascribed this mimicking of Christian rites to the "devil" and observed in astonishment De prescript haeret, C.
Let it suffice to note that all these explanations necessarily lead to impenetrable night, as long as men refuse to believe in the true Divinity of Christ , who commanded that His bloody sacrifice on the Cross should be daily renewed by an unbloody sacrifice of His Body and Blood in the Mass under the simple elements of bread and wine. This alone is the origin and nature of the Mass. The physical character of the Mass In regard to the physical character there arises not only the question as to the concrete portions of the liturgy, in which the real offering lies hidden, but also the question regarding the relation of the Mass to the bloody sacrifice of the Cross.
To begin with the latter question as much the more important, Catholics and believing Protestants alike acknowledge that as Christians we venerate in the bloody sacrifice of the Cross the one, universal, absolute Sacrifice for the salvation of the world. And this indeed is true in a double sense first, because among all the sacrifices of the past and future the Sacrifice on the Cross alone stands without any relation to, and absolutely independent of, any other sacrifice, a complete totality and unity in itself; second because every grace, means of grace and sacrifice, whether belonging to the Jewish, Christian or pagan economy, derive their whole undivided strength, value, and efficiency singly and alone from this absolute sacrifice on the Cross.
The first consideration implies that all the sacrifices of the Old Testament , as well as the Sacrifice of the Mass, bear the essential mark of relativity, in so far as they are necessarily related to the Sacrifice of the Cross, as the periphery of a circle to the centre. From the second consideration it follows that all other Sacrifices, the Mass included, are empty, barren and void of effect, so far and so long as they are not supplied from the mainstream of merits due to the suffering of the Crucified. Let us deal briefly with this double relationship. Regarding the qualification of relativity, which adheres to every sacrifice other than the sacrifice of the Cross, there is no doubt that the sacrifices of the Old Testament by their figurative forms and prophetic significance point to the sacrifice of the Cross as their eventual fulfilment.
The Epistle to the Hebrews viii-x in particular develops grandly the figurative character of the Old Testament. Not only was the Levitic priesthood , as a "shadow of the things to come" a faint type of the high priesthood of Christ , but the complex sacrificial cult, broadly spread out in its parts, prefigured the one sacrifice of the Cross.
Serving only the legal "cleansing of the flesh" the Levitical sacrifices could effect no true "forgiveness of sins "; by their very inefficacy however they point prophetically to the perfect Sacrifice of propitiation on Golgotha. Just for that reason their continual repetition as well as their great diversity was essential to them, as a means of keeping alive in the Jews the yearning for the true sacrifice of expiation which the future was to bring. This longing was satiated only by the single Sacrifice of the Cross, which was never again to be repeated. Naturally the Mass, too, if it is to have the character of a legitimate sacrifice must be in accord with this inviolable rule, no longer Indeed as a type prophetic of future things, but rather as the living realization and renewal of the past.
Only the Last Supper , standing midway as it were between the figure and its fulfilment, still looked to the future, in so far as it was an anticipatory commemoration of the sacrifice of the Cross. In the discourse in which the Eucharist was instituted, the "giving of the body" and the "Shedding of the Blood" were of necessity related to the physical separation of the blood from the body on the Cross, without which the sacramental immolation of Christ at the Last Supper would be inconceivable. The Fathers of the Church , such as Cyprian Ep.
Regarding the other aspect of the Sacrifice on the Cross, viz. This does not mean that mankind is suddenly and without the action of its own will brought back to the state of innocence in Paradise and set above the necessity of working to secure for itself the fruits of redemption.
Otherwise children would be in no need of baptism nor adults of justifying faith to win eternal happiness. The "completion" spoken of by Paul can therefore refer only to the objective side of redemption , which does not dispense with, but on the contrary requires, the proper subjective disposition. The sacrifice once offered on the Cross filled the infinite reservoirs to overflowing with healing waters but those who thirst after justice must come with their chalices and draw out what they need to quench their thirst.
In this important distinction between objective and subjective redemption , which belongs to the essence of Christianity , lies not merely the possibility, but also the justification of the Mass. But here unfortunately Catholics and Protestants part company. The latter can see in the Mass only a "denial of the one sacrifice of Jesus Christ ". This is a wrong view, for if the Mass can do and does no more than convey the merits of Christ to mankind by means of a sacrifice exactly as the sacraments do it without the use of sacrifice, it stands to reason that the Mass is neither a second independent sacrifice alongside of the sacrifice on the Cross, nor a substitute whereby the sacrifice on the Cross is completed or its value enhanced.
The only distinction between the Mass and the sacrament lies in this: In both, the Church draws upon the one Sacrifice on the Cross. This is and remains the one Sun, that gives life, light and warmth to everything; the sacraments and the Mass are only the planets that revolve round the central body. Take the Sun away and the Mass is annihilated not one whit less than the sacraments. On the other hand, without these two the Sacrifice on the Cross would reign as independently as, conceivably the sun without the planets. The Council of Trent Sess. Must not the same reproach be cast upon the Sacraments also?
Does it not apply to baptism and communion among Protestants? And how can Christ Himself put blasphemy and darkness in the way of His Sacrifice on the Cross when He Himself is the High Priest , in whose name and by whose commission His human representative offers sacrifice with the words: It is the express teaching of the Church cf. XXII, i that the Mass is in its very nature a "representation" representatio , a "commemoration" memoria and an "application" applicatio of the Sacrifice of the Cross.
When indeed the Roman Catechism II, c. In as much as the sacrificing priest offerens and the sacrificial victim hostia in both sacrifices are Christ Himself, their same amounts even to a numerical identity. In regard to the manner of the sacrifice offerendi ratio on the other hand, it is naturally a question only of a specific identity or unity that includes the possibility of ten, a hundred, or a thousand masses. The constituent parts of the Mass Turning now to the other question as to the constituent parts of the liturgy of the Mass in which the real sacrifice is to be looked for we need only take into consideration its three chief parts: The antiquated view of Johann Eck , according to which the act of sacrifice was comprised in the prayer "Unde et memores.
The question therefore arises first: Is the sacrifice comprised in the Offertory? From the wording of the prayer this much at least is clear that bread and wine constitute the secondary sacrificial elements of the Mass, since the priest in the true language of sacrifice, offers to God bread as an unspotted host immaculatam hostiam and wine as the chalice of salvation calicem salutaris.
But the very significance of this language proves that attention is mainly directed to the prospective transubstantiation of the Eucharistic elements.
Since the Mass is not a mere offering of bread and wine , like the figurative food offering of Melchisedech , it is clear that only the Body and Blood of Christ can be the primary matter of the sacrifice as was the case at the Last Supper cf. Consequently the sacrifice is not in the Offertory. Does it consist then in the priest's Communion? There were and are theologians who favour that view. They can be ranged in two classes, according as they see in the Communion the essential or the co-essential.
Those who belong to the first category Dominicus Soto , Renz, Bellord had to beware of the heretical doctrine proscribed by the Council of Trent Sess. In American and English circles the so-called "banquet theory" of the late Bishop Bellord once created some stir cf. According to that view, the essence of the sacrifice was not to be looked for in the offering of a gift to God , but solely in the Communion. Without communion there was no sacrifice. With the complete shedding of blood pagan sacrifices ended, so that the supper which sometimes followed it was expressive merely of the satisfaction felt at the reconciliation with gods.
Even the horrible human sacrifices had as their object the death of the victim only and not a cannibal feast. As to the Jews , only a few Levitical sacrifices , such as the peace offering, had feasting connected with them; most, and especially the burnt offerings holocausta , were accomplished without feasting cf.
Bishop Bellord, having cast in his lot with the "banquet theory", could naturally find the essence of the Mass in the priests' Communion only. He was indeed logically bound to allow that the Crucifixion itself had the character of a sacrifice only in conjunction with the Last Supper , at which alone food was taken; for the Crucifixion excluded any ritual food offering. These disquieting consequences are all the more serious in that they are devoid of any scientific basis.
But only in appearance; for the sacrificial transformation of the victim must take place on the altar , and not in the body of the celebrant, while the partaking of the two elements can at most represent the burial and not the sacrificial death of Christ. The Last Supper also would have been a true sacrifice only on condition that Christ had given the Communion not only to His apostles but also to Himself.
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There is however no evidence that such a Communion ever took place, probable as it may appear. For the rest, the Communion of the priest is not the sacrifice, but only the completion of, and participation in, the sacrifice, it belongs therefore not to the essence, but to the integrity of the sacrifice.
And this integrity is also preserved absolutely even in the so-called "private Mass" at which the priest alone communicates; private Masses are allowed for that reason cf.
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Sacrifice of the Mass
When the Jansenist Synod of Pistoia , proclaiming the false principle that "participation in the sacrifice is essential to the sacrifice", demanded at least the making of a "spiritual communion" on the part of the faithful as a condition of allowing private Masses, it was denied by Pius VI in his Bull "Auctorem fidei" see Denzinger , n. After the elimination of the Offertory and Communion, there remains only the Consecration as the part in which the true sacrifice is to be sought. In reality, that part alone is to be regarded as the proper sacrificial act which is such by Christ's own institution.
Now the Lord's words are: The sacrifice must also be at the point where Christ personally appears as High Priest and human celebrant acts only as his representative. The priest does not however assume the personal part of Christ either at the Offertory or Communion. He only does so when he speaks the words: While the Consecration as such can be shown with certainty to be the act of Sacrifice, the necessity of the twofold consecration can be demonstrated only as highly probable.
Not only older theologians such as Frassen , Gotti , and Bonacina, but also later theologians such as Schouppen, Stentrup and Fr. Schmid, have supported the untenable theory that when one of the consecrated elements is invalid, such as barley bread or cider, the consecration of the valid element not only produces the Sacrament, but also the mutilated sacrifice. Their chief argument is that the sacrament in the Eucharist is inseparable in idea from the sacrifice. But they entirely overlooked the fact that Christ positively prescribed the twofold consecration for the sacrifice of the Mass not for the sacrament , and especially the fact that in the consecration of one element only the intrinsically essential relation of the Mass to the sacrifice of the Cross is not symbolically represented.
Since it was no mere death from suffocation that Christ suffered, but a bloody death, in which His veins were emptied of their Blood, this condition of separation must receive visible representation on the altar , as in a sublime drama. This condition is fulfilled only by the double consecration , which brings before our eyes the Body and the Blood in the state of separation, and thus represents the mystical shedding of blood.
Consequently, the double consecration is an absolutely essential element of the Mass as a relative sacrifice. The metaphysical character of the Sacrifice of the Mass The physical essence of the Mass having been established in the consecration of the two species, the metaphysical question arises as to whether and in what degree the scientific concept of sacrifice is realized in this double consecration. Since the three ideas , sacrificing priest , sacrificial gift, and sacrificial object, present no difficulty to the understanding, the problem is finally seen to lie entirely in the determination of the real sacrificial act actio sacrifica , and indeed not so much in the form of this act as in the matter, since the glorified Victim, in consequence of Its impassibility, cannot be really transformed, much less destroyed.
In their investigation of the idea of destruction, the post-Tridentine theologians have brought into play all their acuteness, often with brilliant results, and have elaborated a series of theories concerning the Sacrifice of the Mass, of which, however, we can discuss only the most notable and important. But first, that we may have at hand a reliable, critical standard wherewith to test the validity or invalidity of the various theories, we maintain that a sound and satisfactory theory must satisfy the following four conditions: With the aid of these four criteria it is comparatively easy to arrive at a decision concerning the probability or otherwise of the different theories concerning the sacrifice of the Mass.
This view soon found a keen critic in Cardinal de Lugo, who, appealing to the Tridentine definition of the Mass as a true and proper sacrifice, upbraided Vasquez for reducing the Mass to a purely relative sacrifice. Were Jephta to arise again today with his daughter from the grave, he argues De Euchar. Such may indeed satisfy the notion of a relative sacrifice, but certainly not the notion of the Mass which includes in itself both the relative and the absolute in opposition to the merely relative sacrificial moment.
If the Mass is to be something more than an Ober-Ammergau Passion Play , then not only must Christ appear in His real personality on the altar , but He must also be in some manner really sacrificed on that very altar. The theory of Vasquez thus fails to fulfil the first condition which we have named above. To a certain extent the opposite of Vasquez's theory is that of Cardinal Cienfuegos, who, while exaggerating the absolute moment of the Mass, undervalues the equally essential relative moment of the sacrifice.
The sacrificial destruction of the Eucharistic Christ he would find in the voluntary suspension of the powers of sense especially of sight and hearing , which the sacramental mode of existence implies, and which lasts from the consecration to the mingling of the two Species. But, apart from the fact that one may not constitute a hypothetical theologumenon the basis of a theory, one can no longer from such a standpoint successfully defend the indispensability of the double consecration.
Equally difficult is it to find in the Eucharistic Christ's voluntary surrender of his sensitive functions the relative moment of sacrifice, i. Herein is straightway revealed a serious weakness, already clearly perceived by De Lugo. For the production of a thing can never be identical with its sacrifice; otherwise one might declare the gardener's production of plants or the farmer's raising of cattle a sacrifice. To offer something as a sacrifice always means to divest oneself of it, even though this self-divestment may finally lead to exaltation. In Germany the profound, but poorly developed theory of Valentin Thalhofer found great favour.
We need not, however, develop it here, especially since it rests on the false basis of a supposed "heavenly sacrifice" of Christ , which, as the virtual continuation of the Sacrifice of the Cross, becomes a temporal and spatial phenomenon in the Sacrifice of the Mass. But, as practically all other theologians teach, the existence of this heavenly sacrifice in the strict sense is only a beautiful theological dream, and at any rate cannot be demonstrated from the Epistle to the Hebrews.
The old conception, which our catechisms even today proclaim to the people as the most natural and intelligible, may be fearlessly declared the patristic and traditional view; its restoration to a position of general esteem is the service of Father Billot De sacram. Since this theory refers the absolute moment of the sacrifice to the active "sacramental mystical slaying", and the relative to the passive "separation of Body and Blood", it has indeed made the "two-edged sword" of the double consecration the cause from which the double character of the Mass as an absolute real in itself and relative sacrifice proceeds.
While this view meets every requirement of the metaphysical nature of the Sacrifice of the Mass, we do not think it right to reject offhand the somewhat more elaborate theory of Lessius instead of utilizing it in the spirit of the traditional view for the extension of the idea of a "mystical slaying".
XII, xiii goes beyond the old explanation by adding the not untrue observation that the intrinsic force of the double consecration would have as result an actual and true shedding of blood on the altar , if this were not per accidens impossible in consequence of the impassibility of the transfigured Body of Christ.
Since ex vi verborum the consecration of the bread makes really present only the Body, and the consecration of the Chalice only the Blood, the tendency or the double consecration is towards a formal exclusion of the Blood from the Body. The mystical slaying thus approaches nearer to a real destruction and the absolute sacrificial moment of the Mass receives an important confirmation.
In the light of this view, the celebrated statement of St. Gregory of Nazianzus becomes of special importance "Ep. We believe, however, that this theory, like that of Lessius , might be most profitably utilized to develop, supplement, and deepen the traditional view. Starting from the principle that the Eucharistic destruction can be, not a physical but only a moral one, De Lugo finds this exinanition in the voluntary reduction of Christ to the condition of food reductio ad statum cibi el potus , in virtue of which the Saviour, after the fashion of lifeless food, leaves himself at the mercy of mankind.
That this is really equivalent to a true kenosis no one can deny. Herein the Christian pulpit has at its disposal a truly inexhaustible source of lofty thoughts wherewith to illustrate in glowing language the humility and love , the destitution and defencelessness of Our Saviour under the sacramental veil, His magnanimous submission to irreverence, dishonour, and sacrilege, and wherewith to emphasize that even today that fire of self-sacrifice which once burned on the Cross, still sends forth its tongues of flame in a mysterious manner from the Heart of Jesus to our altars. While, in this incomprehensible condescension, the absolute moment of sacrifice is disclosed in an especially striking manner, one is reluctantly compelled to recognize the absence of two of the other requisites: De Lugo's theory seems, therefore, of no service in this connection.
It renders, howover, the most useful service in extending the traditional idea of a "mystical slaying", since indeed the reduction of Christ to food is and purports to be nothing else than the preparation of the mystically slain Victim for the sacrificial feast in the Communion of the priest and the faithful. The causality of the Mass In this section we shall treat: The effects of the Sacrifice of the Mass The Reformers found themselves compelled to reject entirely the Sacrifice of the Mass, since they recognized the Eucharist merely as a sacrament.
Both their views were founded on the reflection, properly appraised above that the Bloody Sacrifice of the Cross was the sole Sacrifice of Christ and of Christendom and thus does not admit of the Sacrifice of the Mass. As a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving in the symbolical or figurative sense, they had earlier approved of the Mass, and Melanchthon resented the charge that Protestants had entirely abolished it.
What they most bitterly opposed was the Catholic doctrine that the Mass is a sacrifice not only of praise and thanksgiving, but also of impetration and atonement, whose fruits may benefit others, while it is evident that a sacrament as such can profit merely the recipient. Here the Council of Trent interposed with a definition of faith Sess. In this canon, which gives a summary of all the sacrificial effects in order, the synod emphasizes the propitiatory and impetratory nature of the sacrifice. Propitiation propitiatio and petition impetratio are distinguishable from each other, in as much as the latter appeals to the goodness and the former to the mercy of God.
Naturally, therefore, they differ also as regards their objects, since, while petition is directed towards our spiritual and temporal concerns and needs of every kind, propitiation refers to our sins peccata and to the temporal punishments poenae , which must be expiated by works of penance or satisfaction satisfactiones in this life, or otherwise by a corresponding suffering in purgatory. In all these respects the impetratory and expiatory Sacrifice of the Mass is of the greatest utility, both for the living and the dead. Should a Biblical foundation for the Tridentine doctrine be asked for, we might first of all argue in general as follows: Just as there were in the Old Testament , in addition to sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving, propitiatory and impetratory sacrifices cf.
But, according to the prophecy of Malachias , this is the Mass, which is to be celebrated by the Church in all places and at all times. Consequently, the Mass is the impetratory and propitiatory sacrifice. As for special reference to the propitiatory character, the record of institution states expressly that the Blood of Christ is in the chalice "unto remission of sins " Matthew The chief source of our doctrine , however, is tradition, which from the earliest times declares the impetratory value of the Sacrifice of the Mass.
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According to Tertullian Ad scapula, ii , the Christians sacrificed "for the welfare of the emperor" pro salute imperatoris ; according to Chrysostom Hom. Cyril of Jerusalem d. We then commemorate the patriarchs , prophets , apostles, martyrs , that God may, at their prayers and intercessions graciously accept our supplication. We afterwards pray for the dead. The Christ, who was slain for our sins , we sacrifice [ Christon esphagmenon yper ton emeteron amartematon prospheromen ] to propitiate the merciful God for those who are gone before and for ourselves.
By a Saint's Mass is meant, not the offering up of the Sacrifice of the Mass to a saint which would be impossible without most shameful idolatry , but a sacrifice, which, while offered to God alone, on the one hand thanks Him for the triumphal coronation of the saints , and on the other aims at procuring for us the saint's efficacious intercession with God. Such is the authentic explanation of the Council of Trent Sess.
XXII cap, iii, in Denzinger , n. With this threefold limitation, Masses "in honour of the saints " are certainly no base "deception", but are morally allowable, as the Council of Trent specifically declares loc. The general moral permissibility of invoking the intercession of the saints , concerning which this is not the place to speak, is of course assumed in the present instance.
While adoration and thanksgiving are effects of the Mass which relate to God alone, the success of impetration and expiation on the other hand reverts to man. These last two effects are thus also called by theologians the "fruits of the Mass" fructus missae and this distinction leads us to the discussion of the difficult and frequently asked question as to whether we are to impute infinite or finite value to the Sacrifice of the Mass. This question is not of the kind which may be answered with a simple yes or no.
For, apart from the already indicated distinction between adoration and thanksgiving on the one hand and impetration and expiation on the other, we must also sharply distinguish between the intrinsic and the extrinsic value of the Mass valor intrinsecus, extrinsecus. As for its intrinsic value, it seems beyond doubt that, in view of the infinite worth of Christ as the Victim and High Priest in one Person, the sacrifice must be regarded as of infinite value, just as the sacrifice of the Last Supper and that of the Cross. Here however, we must once more strongly emphasize the fact that the ever-continued sacrificial activity of Christ in Heaven does not and cannot serve to accumulate fresh redemptory merits and to assume new objective value; it simply stamps into current coin, so to speak, the redemptory merits definitively and perfectly obtained in the Sacrifice of the Cross, and sets them into circulation among mankind.
This also is the teaching of the Council of Trent Sess. There is, however, no reason why this intrinsic value of the Mass derived from the Sacrifice of the Cross, in so far as it represents a sacrifice of adoration and thanksgiving, should not also operate outwardly to the full extent of its infinity , for it seems inconceivable that the Heavenly Father could accept with other than infinite satisfaction the sacrifice of His only-begotten Son.
Consequently God , as Malachias had already prophesied, is in a truly infinite degree honoured , glorified, and praised in the Mass; through Our Lord Jesus Christ he is thanked by men for all his benefits in an infinite manner, in a manner worthy of God. But when we turn to the Mass as a sacrifice of impetration and expiation, the case is different. While we must always regard its intrinsic value as infinite , since it is the sacrifice of the God-Man Himself, its extrinsic value must necessarily be finite in consequence of the limitations of man.
The scope of the so-called "fruits of the Mass" is limited. Just as a tiny chip of wood can not within it contain the whole energy of the sun, so also, and in a still greater degree, is man incapable of converting the boundless value of the impetratory and expiatory sacrifice into an infinite effect for his soul. Wherefore, in practice, the impetratory value of the sacrifice is always as limited as is its propitiatory and satisfactory value.
The greater or less measure of the fruits derived will naturally depend very much on the personal efforts and worthiness, the devotion and fervour of those who celebrate or are present at Mass. This limitation of the fruits of the Mass must, however, not be misconstrued to mean that the presence of a large congregation causes a diminution of the benefits derived from the Sacrifice by the individual, as if such benefits were after some fashion divided into so many aliquot parts.
Neither the Church nor the Christian people has any tolerance for the false principle: On the contrary the Bride of Christ desires for every Mass a crowded church, being rightly convinced that from the unlimited treasures of the Mass much more grace will result to the individual from a service participated in by a full congregation, than from one attended merely by a few of the faithful. This relative infinite value refers indeed only to the general fruit of the Mass fructus generalis , and not to the special fructus specialis two terms whose distinction will be more clearly characterized below.
Here, however, we may remark that by the special fruit of the Mass is meant that for the application of which according to a special intention a priest may accept a stipend. The question now arises whether in this connection the applicable value of the Mass is to be regarded as finite or infinite or, more accurately, unlimited. This question is of importance in view of the practical consequences it involves. For, if we decide in favour of the unlimited value, a single Mass celebrated for a hundred persons or intentions is as efficacious as a hundred Masses celebrated for a single person or intention.
On the other hand, it is clear that, if we incline towards a finite value, the special fruit is divided pro rata among the hundred persons. In their quest for a solution of this question, two classes of theologians are distinguished according to their tendencies: But, since the Church has entirely forbidden as a breach of strict justice that a priest should seek to fulfil, by reading a single Mass, the obligations imposed by several stipends see Denzinger , n.
Only on such a hypothesis is the custom prevailing among the faithful of having several Masses celebrated for the deceased or for their intentions intelligible. Only on such a hypothesis can one explain the widely established "Mass Association", a pious union whose members voluntarily bind themselves to read or get read at least one Mass annually for the poor souls in purgatory. As early as the eighth century we find in Germany a so-called "Totenbund" see Pertz, "Monum. But probably the greatest of such societies is the Messbund of Ingolstadt, founded in ; it was raised to a confraternity Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception on 3 Feb.
Beringer, "Die Ablasse, ihr Wesen u. The manner of efficacy of the Mass In theological phrase an effect "from the work of the action" ex opere operato signifies a grace conditioned exclusively by the objective bringing into activity of a cause of the supernatural order , in connection with which the proper disposition of the subject comes subsequently into account only as an indispensable antecedent condition conditio sine qua non , but not as a real joint cause concausa.
Thus, for example, baptism by its mere ministration produces ex opere operato interior grace in each recipient of the sacrament who in his heart opposes no obstacle obez to the reception of the graces of baptism. On the other hand, all supernatural effects, which, presupposing the state of grace are accomplished by the personal actions and exertions of the subject e.
In what manner does the Eucharistic Sacrifice accomplish its effects and fruits? As the early scholastics gave scarcely any attention to this problem, we are indebted for almost all the light thrown upon it to the later scholastics. At the head of all stands of course the High Priest , Christ Himself; to make the Sacrifice of the Cross fruitful for us and to secure its application, He offers Himself as a sacrifice, which is quite independent of the merits or demerits of the Church , the celebrant or the faithful present at the sacrifice, and is for these an opus operatum.
Next after Christ and in the second place comes the Church as a juridical person , who, according to the express teaching of the Council of Trent Sess. But to this special sacrificial activity of the Church , offering up the sacrifice together with Christ, must also correspond a special ecclesiastico-human merit as a fruit, which, although in itself an opus operantis of the Church , is yet entirely independent of the worthiness of the celebrant and the faithful and therefore constitutes for these an opus operatum.
When, however, as De Lugo rightly points out, an excommunicated or suspended priest celebrates in defiance of the prohibition of the Church , this ecclesiastical merit is always lost, since such a priest no longer acts in the name and with the commission of the Church.
His sacrifice is nevertheless valid, since, by virtue of his priestly ordination , he celebrates in the name of Christ , even though in opposition to His wishes, and, as the self-sacrifice of Christ , even such a Mass remains essentially a spotless and untarnished sacrifice before God. We are thus compelled to concur in another view of De Lugo , namely that the greatness and extent of this ecclesiastical service is dependent on the greater or less holiness of the reigning pope , the bishops , and the clergy throughout the World, and that for this reason in times of ecclesiastical decay and laxity of morals especially at the papal court and among the episcopate the fruits of the Mass, resulting from the sacrificial activity of the Church , might under certain circumstances easily be very small.
With Christ and His Church is associated in third place the celebrating priest , since he is the representative through whom the real and the mystical Christ offer up the sacrifice. If, therefore, the celebrant be a man of great personal devotion, holiness , and purity, there will accrue an additional fruit which will benefit not himself alone, but also those in whose favour he applies the Mass. The faithful are thus guided by sound instinct when they prefer to have Mass celebrated for their intentions by an upright and holy priest rather than by an unworthy one, since, in addition to the chief fruit of the Mass, they secure this special fruit which springs ex opera operantis , from the piety of the celebrant.
Finally, in the fourth place, must be mentioned those who participate actively in the Sacrifice of the Mass, e. The priest , therefore, prays also in their name: That the effect resulting from this metaphorical sacrificial activity is entirely dependent on the worthiness and piety of those taking part therein and thus results exclusively ex opere operantis is evident without further demonstration.
The more fervent the prayer , the richer the fruit. Most intimate is the active participation in the Sacrifice of those who receive Holy Communion during the Mass since in their case the special fruits of the Communion are added to those of the Mass. Should sacramental Communion be impossible, the Council of Trent Sess.
However, as we have already emphasized, the omission of real or spiritual Communion on the part of the faithful present does not render the Sacrifice of the Mass either invalid or unlawful, wherefore the Church even permits "private Masses", which may on reasonable grounds be celebrated in a chapel with closed doors. They fall into three categories: To each of these three classes corresponds ex opere operato a special fruit of the Mass, whether the same be an impetratory effect of the Sacrifice of Petition or a propitiatory and satisfactory effect of the Sacrifice of Expiation.
Although the development of the teaching concerning the threefold fruit of the Mass begins only with Scotus Quaest. Since, according to the wording of the Canon of the Mass , prayer and sacrifice is offered for all those present, the whole Church , the pope , the diocesan bishop , the faithful living and dead, and even "for the salvation of the whole world", there must first of all result a "general fruit" fructus generalis for all mankind , the bestowal of which lies immediately in the will of Christ and His Church , and can thus be frustrated by no contrary intention of the celebrant.
In this fruit even the excommunicated , heretics , and infidels participate, mainly that their conversion may thus be effected. Between these two fruits lies the third, the so-called "special fruit of the Mass" fructus specialis, medius, or ministerialis , which is usually applied to particular living or deceased persons according to the intention of the celebrant or the donor of a stipend.
This "application" rests so exclusively in the hands of the priest that even the prohibition of the Church cannot render it inefficacious, although the celebrant would in such a case sin through disobedience. For the existence of the special fruit of the Mass, rightly defended by Pius VI against the Jansenistic Synod of Pistoia , we have the testimony also of Christian antiquity, which offered the Sacrifice for special persons and intentions.
As an expiatory sacrifice, the Mass has the double function of obliterating actual sins , especially mortal sins effectus stricte propitiatorius , and also of taking away, in the case of those already in the state of grace, such temporal punishments as may still remain to be endured effectus satisfactorius. The main question is: Is this double effect ex opere operato produced mediately or immediately?
As regards the actual forgiveness of sin , it must, in opposition to earlier theologians Aragon, Casalis, Gregory of Valentia , be maintained as undoubtedly a certain principle, that the expiatory sacrifice of the Mass can never accomplish the forgiveness of mortal sins otherwise than by way of contrition and penance, and therefore only mediately through procuring the grace of conversion cf. Council of Trent, Sess. With this limitation, however, the Mass is able to remit even the most grievous sins Council of Trent, 1. Since, according to the present economy of salvation , no sin whatsoever, grievous or trifling, can be forgiven without an act of sorrow, we must confine the efficacy of the Mass, even in the case of venial sins , to obtaining for Christians the grace of contrition for less serious sins Sess.
It is indeed this purely mediate activity which constitutes the essential distinction between the sacrifice and the sacrament. Concerning the remission of the temporal punishment due to sin , however, which appears to be effected in an immediate manner, our judgment must be different. The reason lies in the intrinsic distinction between sin and its punishment.
Without the personal cooperation and sorrow of the sinner, all forgiveness of sin by God is impossible; this cannot however be said of a mere remission of punishment. One person may validly discharge the debts or fines of another, even without apprising the debtor of his intention. The same rule may be applied to a just person , who, after his justification , is still burdened with temporal punishment consequent on his sins. It is certain that, only in this immediate way, can assistance be given to the poor souls in purgatory through the Sacrifice of the Mass, since they are henceforth powerless to perform personal works of satisfaction cf.
From this consideration we derive by analogy the legitimate conclusion that the case exactly the same as regards the living. Practical questions concerning the Mass From the exceedingly high valuation, which the Church places on the Mass as the unbloody Sacrifice of the God-Man , issue, as it were spontaneously all those practical precepts of a positive or a negative nature, which are given in the Rubrics of the Mass, in Canon Law, and in Moral Theology. They may be conveniently divided into two categories, according as they are intended to secure in the highest degree possible the objective dignity of the Sacrifice or the subjective worthiness of the celebrant.
Precepts for the Promotion of the Dignity of the Sacrifice a One of the most important requisites for the worthy celebration of the Mass is that the place in which the all-holy Mystery is to be celebrated should be a suitable one. Since, in the days of the Apostolic Church, there were no churches or chapels , private houses with suitable accommodation were appointed for the solemnization of "the breaking of bread" cf.
During the era of the persecutions the Eucharistic services in Rome were transferred to the catacombs , where the Christians believed themselves secure from government agents. The first "houses of God " reach back certainly to the end of the second century, as we learn from Tertullian Adv. In the second half of the fourth century A. II, iv could already reckon more than forty basilicas which adorned the city of Rome.
From this period dates the prohibition of the Synod of Laodicea can. Thenceforth the public churches were to be the sole places of worship. In the Middle Ages the synods granted to bishops the right of allowing house-chapels within their dioceses. According to the law of today Council of Trent, Sess. At present, private chapels may be erected only in virtue of a special papal indult S. In the latter case, the real place of sacrifice is the consecrated altar or altar-stone , which must be placed in a suitable room cf.
In times of great need e. On reasonable grounds the bishop may, in virtue of the so-called "quinquennial faculties", allow the celebration of Mass in the open air, but the celebration of Mass at sea is allowed only by papal indult. In such an indult it is usually provided that the sea be calm during the celebration, and that a second priest or deacon be at hand to prevent the spilling of the chalice in case of the rocking of the ship. In the Apostolic age the first Christians assembled regularly on Sundays for "the breaking of bread" Acts Justin himself seems to be aware only of the Sunday celebration, but Tertullian adds the fast-days on Wednesday and Friday and the anniversaries of the martyrs "De cor.
As Tertullian calls the whole paschal season until Pentecost "one long feast", we may conclude with some justice that during this period the faithful not only communicated daily, but were also present at the Eucharistic Liturgy. As regards the time of the day, there existed in the Apostolic age no fixed precepts regarding the hour at which the Eucharistic celebration should take place.
The Apostle Paul appears to have on occasion "broken bread" about midnight Acts Tertullian gives as the hour of the assembly the time before dawn De cor. When the fact was adverted to that the Saviour's Resurrection occurred in the morning before sunrise, a change of the hour set in, the celebration of Mass being postponed until this time. Thus Cyprian writes of the Sunday celebration Ep.
When the Little Hours Prime , Terce , Sext , None began in the Middle Ages to lose their significance as "canonical hours" , the precepts governing the hour for the conventual Mass received a new meaning. Thus, for example, the precepts that the conventual Mass should be held after None on fast days does not signify that it be held between midday and evening, but only that "the recitation of None in choir is followed by the Mass". It is in general left to the discretion of the priest to celebrate at any hour between dawn and midday ab aurora usque ad meridiem.
It is proper that he should read beforehand Matins and Lauds from his breviary. The sublimity of the Sacrifice of the Mass demands that the priest should approach the altar wearing the sacred vestments amice , stole, cincture , maniple , and chasuble. Whether the priestly vestments are historical developments from Judaism or paganism , is a question still discussed by archaeologists. In any case the "Canones Hippolyti" require that at Pontifical Mass the deacons and priests appear in "white vestments ", and that the lectors also wear festive garments.
No priest may celebrate Mass without light usually two candles , except in case of urgent necessity e. The altar-cross is also necessary as an indication that the Sacrifice of the Mass is nothing else than the unbloody reproduction of the Sacrifice of the Cross. Usually, also, the priest must be attended at the altar by a server of the male sex. The celebration of Mass without a server is allowed only in case of need e. A person of the female sex may not serve at the altar itself, e.
Women especially nuns may, however, answer the celebrant from their places, if no male server be at hand. By a mass-stipend is meant a certain monetary offering which anyone makes to the priest with the accompanying obligation of celebrating a Mass in accordance with the intentions of the donor ad intentionem dantis.
The obligation incurred consists, concretely speaking, in the application of the "special fruit of the Mass" fructus specialis , the nature of which we have already described in detail A, 3. The idea of the stipend emanates from the earliest ages, and its justification lies incontestably in the axiom of St. Paul 1 Corinthians 9: Originally consisting of the necessaries of life, the stipend was at first considered as "alms for a Mass" eleemosyna missarum , the object being to contribute to the proper support of the clergy. The character of a pure alms has been since lost by the stipend, since such may be accepted by even a wealthy priest.
But the Pauline principle applies to the wealthy priest just as it does to the poor. The now customary money-offering, which was introduced about the eighth century and was tacitly approved by the Church , is to be regarded merely as the substitute or commutation of the earlier presentation of the necessaries of life. In this very point, also, a change from the ancient practice has been introduced, since at present the individual priest receives the stipend personally, whereas formerly all the clergy of the particular church shared among them the total oblations and gifts.
In their present form, the whole matter of stipends has been officially taken by the Church entirely under her protection, both by the Council of Trent Sess. Since the stipend, in its origin and nature, claims to be and can be nothing else than a lawful contribution towards the proper support of the clergy , the false and foolish views of the ignorant are shown to be without foundation when they suppose that a Mass may be simoniacally purchased with money Cf. To obviate all abuses concerning of the amount of the stipend, there exists in each diocese a fixed "mass-tax" settled either by ancient custom or by an episcopal regulation , which no priest may exceed, unless extraordinary inconvenience e.
To eradicate all unworthy greed from among both laity and clergy in connection with a thing so sacred, Pius IX in his Constitution "Apostolicae Sedis" of 12 Oct. The trafficking consists in reducing the larger stipend collected to the level of the "tax", and appropriating the surplus for oneself. Into the category of shameful traffic in stipends also falls the reprehensible practice of booksellers and tradesmen, who organize public collections of stipends and retain the money contributions as payment for books, merchandise, wines, etc.
As special punishment for this offence, suspensio a divinis reserved to the pope is proclaimed against priests , irregularity against other clerics , and excommunication reserved to the bishop , against the laity. Another bulwark against avarice is the strict regulation of the Church , binding under pain of mortal sin , that priests shall not accept more intentions than they can satisfy within a reasonable period S. This regulation was emphasized by the additional one which forbade stipends to be transferred to priests of another diocese without the knowledge of their ordinaries S.
The acceptance of a stipend imposes under pain of mortal sin the obligation not only of reading the stipulated Mass, but also of fulfilling conscientiously all other appointed conditions of an important character e. Should some obstacle arise, the money must either be returned to the donor or a substitute procured. In the latter case, the substitute must be given, not the usual stipend, but the whole offering received cf.
VIII in Denzinger , n. There is tacit condition which requires the reading of the stipulated Mass as soon as possible. According to the common opinion of moral theologians , a postponement of two months is in less urgent cases admissible, even though no lawful impediment can be brought forward. Should, however, a priest postpone a Mass for a happy delivery until after the event, he is bound to return the stipends. However, since all these precepts have been imposed solely in the interests of the stipend-giver, it is evident that he enjoys the right of sanctioning all unusual delays.
Mass-foundations fundationes missarum are fixed bequests of funds or real property , the interest or income from which is to procure for ever the celebration of Mass for the founder or according to his intentions. Apart from anniversaries, foundations of Masses are divided, according to the testamentary arrangement of the testator, into monthly, weekly, and daily foundations. As ecclesiastical property , mass-foundations are subject to the administration of the ecclesiastical authorities , especially of the diocesan bishop , who must grant hls permission for the acceptance of such and must appoint for them the lowest rate.
Only when episcopal approval has been secured can the foundation be regarded as completed; thenceforth it is unalterable for ever. In places where the acquirement of ecclesiastical property is subject to the approval of the State e. The declared wishes of the founder are sacred and decisive as to the manner of fulfillment.
Should no special intention be mentioned in the deed of foundation, the Mass must be applied for the founder himself S. Religion's purpose is to teach us virtue , from which we can expect reward from God. By great efforts, it is possible for those in the flesh to achieve moral perfection.
Pelagius's seemingly optimistic creed in fact burdens weak mortals with a burden too great to bear; or at least this was part of the response of St Augustine. More importantly, it does not clearly explain why Jesus Christ had to die for anyone's sins; if men can redeem themselves by their own efforts, atonement by Jesus on the Cross was at best a vague sort of moral example. The taint of original sin did extinguish God's grace in men's souls; no matter how righteously they conducted themselves, their virtues could never make them worthy of the infinite holiness of God.
Men are massa peccati , a mass of sin; they can no more endow themselves with grace than an empty glass can fill itself. While we may have "free will" liberum arbitrium in the sense that we can choose our course of conduct, we nevertheless lack true freedom libertas to avoid sin, for sin is inherent in each choice we make. It is only by God's sovereign choice to extend his grace to us that salvation is possible. Pelagianism was repudiated by the Council of Carthage , largely at Augustine's insistence.
The Eastern Orthodox Church , as expressed in the teachings of John Cassian , holds that though grace is required for men to save themselves at the beginning; there is no such thing as total depravity , but there remains a moral or noetic ability within men that is unaffected by original sin, and that men must work together synergism with divine grace to be saved.
This position is called Semi-Pelagianism by many Reformed Protestants. A similar teaching is Arminianism , but Arminians believe in total depravity. In , the Council of Trent , which sought to address and condemn Protestant objections, aimed to purge the Roman Catholic Church of controversial movements and establish an orthodox Roman Catholic teaching on grace and justification, as distinguished from the Protestant teachings on those concepts. It taught that justification and sanctification are elements of the same process. At about the same time that Calvinists and Arminians were debating the meaning of grace in Protestantism, in Catholicism a similar debate was taking place between the Jansenists and the Jesuits.
Cornelius Jansen 's work Augustinus sought to refocus Catholic theology on the themes of original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination, as he found them in the works of St Augustine. The Jansenists, like the Puritans, believed themselves to be members of a gathered church called out of worldly society, and banded together in institutions like the Port-Royal convents seeking to lead lives of greater spiritual intensity.
Blaise Pascal attacked what he called moral laxity in the casuistry of the Jesuits. Jansenist theology remained a minority party within Catholicism, and during the second half of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was condemned as a heresy for its similarities to Calvinism , though its style remained influential in ascetic circles. The Council of Trent declared that "none of those things which precede justification — whether faith or works — merit the grace itself of justification.
For, if it be a grace, it is not now by works, otherwise, as the same Apostle Paul says, grace is no more grace. For this is that crown of justice which the Apostle declared was, after his fight and course, laid up for him, to be rendered to him by the just judge, and not only to him, but also to all that love his coming.
For, whereas Jesus Christ himself continually infuses his virtue into the said justified, — as the head into the members, and the vine into the branches, — and this virtue always precedes and accompanies and follows their good works, which without it could not in any wise be pleasing and meritorious before God, — we must believe that nothing further is wanting to the justified, to prevent their being accounted to have, by those very works which have been done in God, fully satisfied the divine law according to the state of this life, and to have truly merited eternal life, to be obtained also in its due time, if so be, however, that they depart in grace.
Between God and us there is an immeasurable inequality, for we have received everything from him, our Creator. The merit of man before God in the Christian life arises from the fact that God has freely chosen to associate man with the work of his grace. Man's merit, moreover, itself is due to God, for his good actions proceed in Christ, from the predispositions and assistance given by the Holy Spirit. The charity of Christ is the source in us of all our merits before God. Grace, by uniting us to Christ in active love, ensures the supernatural quality of our acts and consequently their merit before God and before men.
In the Orthodox Church , grace is identified with the uncreated Energies of God. Among Eastern Christians generally, grace is considered to be the partaking of the Divine Nature described in 2 Peter 1: The Holy Mysteries Latin, "sacraments" are seen as a means of partaking of divine grace because God works through his Church, not just because specific legalistic rules are followed; and grace is the working of God himself, not a created substance of any kind that can be treated like a commodity. Instead, the Eastern Church has emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in the Christian's life and has maintained ascetic disciplines such as fasting and prayer the minimum fast obligatory on Orthodox faithful is two days weekly and before receiving Communion , [45] not as a way to make satisfaction for past sins or to build up merit, but as a means of spiritual discipline to help reduce one's susceptibility to temptation in the future to exercise self-control, and to avoid being enslaved to one's passions and desires.
Orthodox theologians reject Augustine's formulation of original sin and actively oppose the content and implications of John Calvin 's conceptions of total depravity and irresistible grace , characteristic of Reformed Protestantism, as well as the Thomistic and scholastic theology which would become official Roman Catholic pedagogy. Eastern Christians typically view scholasticism and similarly discursive, systematic theologies as rationalistic corruptions of the theology of the Cappadocian and early Desert Fathers that led the Western Church astray into heresy.
This cooperation is called synergism see also Semipelagianism and monergism , so that humans may become deified in conformity to the divine likeness—a process called theosis —by merging with the uncreated Energies of God revealed to the senses as the Tabor Light of transfiguration , notably through a method of prayer called hesychasm. The Protestant Reformation reacted against the concepts of grace and merit as they were understood in late medieval Catholic theology.
The act was precipitated by the arrival of Johann Tetzel , authorized by the Vatican to sell indulgences. The effectiveness of these indulgences was predicated on the doctrine of the treasury of grace proclaimed by Pope Clement VI. The theory was that merit earned by acts of piety could augment the believer's store of sanctifying grace. Gifts to the Church were acts of piety.
The Church, moreover, had a treasury full of grace above and beyond what was needed to get its faithful into heaven. The Church was willing to part with some of its surplus in exchange for earthly gold. Martin Luther's anger against this practice, which seemed to him to involve the purchase of salvation, began a swing of the pendulum back towards the Pauline vision of grace, as opposed to James's. Luther taught that men were helpless and without a plea before God's justice, and their acts of piety were utterly inadequate before his infinite holiness.
Were God only just, and not merciful, everyone would go to hell , because everyone, even the best of us, deserves to go to hell. Our inability to achieve salvation by our own effort suggests that even our best intention is somehow tainted by our sinful nature. This doctrine is sometimes called total depravity , a term derived from Calvinism and its relatives. It is by faith alone sola fide and by grace alone sola gratia that men are saved. Good works are something the believers should undertake out of gratitude towards their Savior; but they are not necessary for salvation and cannot earn anyone salvation; there is no room for the notion of "merit" in Luther's doctrine of redemption.
There may, however, be degrees of reward for the redeemed in heaven. Only the unearned, unmerited grace of God can save anyone. No one can have a claim of entitlement to God's grace, and it is only by his generosity that salvation is even possible. As opposed to the treasury of grace from which believers can make withdrawals, in Lutheranism salvation becomes a declaration of spiritual bankruptcy , in which penitents acknowledge the inadequacy of their own resources and trust only in God to save them. Accepting Augustine's concern for legal justification as the base metaphor for salvation, the believers are not so much made righteous in Lutheranism as they are considered covered by Christ's righteousness.
Acknowledging that they have no power to make themselves righteous, the penalty for their sins is discharged because Jesus has already paid for it with his blood. His righteousness is credited to those who believe in and thus belong to him. Calvin and Luther believed free will does not co-operate with God's grace which, according to them, cannot be rejected see monergism. The Lutheran Augsburg Confession says of baptism, "Lutherans teach that it is necessary to salvation and that by baptism the grace of God is offered and that children are to be baptized, who by baptism, being offered to God, are received into God's favor.
The logical structure of Calvinism is often expressed as an acronym. These five categories do not comprise Calvinism in its entirety. They simply encapsulate its central, definitive doctrines.
Grace in Christianity
The notion that God has foreordained who will be saved is generally called predestination. The concept of predestination peculiar to Calvinism, " double-predestination ", in conjunction with limited atonement is the most controversial expression of the doctrine. According to Reformed theology, the "good news" of the gospel of Christ is that God has freely granted the gift of salvation to those the Holy Spirit causes to believe; what he freely grants to some the "elect" individuals , he withholds from others the "reprobate" individuals. Calvin sought to provide assurance to the faithful that God would actually save them.
His teaching implied what came to be known as the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints , the notion that God would actually save those who were his Elect. The actual status and ultimate state of any man's soul were unknown except to God. When assurance of election was rigorously pressed as an experience to be sought, especially by the Puritans , this led to a legalism as rigid as the one Protestantism sought to reject, as men were eager to demonstrate that they were among the chosen by the conspicuous works-righteousness of their lives.
The relatively radical positions of Reformed theology provoked a strong reaction from both Roman Catholics and Lutherans. In James Arminius departed from Calvin's theology and put forth a contrary position that sought to reaffirm man's free will and responsibility in salvation, as opposed to the immutable, hidden, eternal decrees of Calvinism. Arminius taught that God's grace was preveniently offered to all, and that all people have the real option to resist the call of the gospel. It is possible for a believer to backslide and abandon the faith, losing the salvation that believer truly once possessed.
These positions came to be known as Arminianism. With respect to the Calvinist Reformed churches , they were firmly rejected by the Synod of Dort — , and Arminian pastors were expelled from the Netherlands. Later, John Wesley also rejected the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. His most comprehensive pronouncement on the subject was his sermon "Free Grace", [1] preached at Bristol in In Wesley's position, the believer who repents and accepts Christ is not "making himself righteous" by an act of his own will, such as would alter his dependency on the grace of God for his salvation.
Faith and repentance, rather, are the believer's trust in God that he will make them righteous. Wesley appealed to prevenient grace as a solution to the problem, stating that God makes the initial move in salvation, but human beings are free to respond or reject God's graceful initiative. John Wesley believed that God provides three kinds of divine grace:. Wesley's opposition to Calvinism [50] was more successful than Arminius', especially in the United States where Arminianism would become the dominant school of soteriology of Evangelical Protestantism, largely because it was spread through popular preaching in a series of Great Awakenings.
The churches of New England , with roots in Puritan Calvinism, tended to begin to reject their Calvinist roots, accepting Wesley's expression of Arminianism, or overthrowing their historical doctrine entirely to depart into Socinianism or liberal theology. John Wesley was never a student of the influential Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius — The latter's work was not a direct influence on Wesley. Yet, he chose the term "Arminianism" to distinguish the kind of Evangelicalism his followers were to espouse from that of their Calvinist theological opponents.
Many have considered the most accurate term for Wesleyan theology to be "Evangelical Arminianism. Protestantism in all three major schools of theology—Lutheran, Calvinist, and Arminian—emphasize God's initiative in the work of salvation, which is achieved by grace alone through faith alone, in either stream of thinking — although these terms are understood differently, according to the differences in systems.
The Protestant teachings on grace suggest a question, however: Such Reformation churches taught that salvation is not ordinarily found outside of the visible Church; but with the increasing emphasis on an experience of conversion as being necessary to salvation, Sola fide began to be taken as implying that the individual's relationship with Jesus is intensely individual; we stand alone before God.
Since Protestants accept that men are saved only and decisively by their belief in Christ's atonement, they often rank preaching that message more than sacraments which apply the promises of the gospel to them as members of the Church. The sermon replaces the Eucharist as the central act of Christian worship.
The church's authority comes from the message it preaches, practically to the exclusion of the sacraments. This is often reflected in the arrangement of the pulpit and altar at the front the church; as preaching becomes more important, the pulpit moves from the side to the center, while the altar for the Eucharist shrinks to the size of a small coffee table or is eliminated entirely.
Classical Calvinism teaches that the sacraments are "signs and seals of the covenant of grace" and "effectual means of salvation", and Lutheranism teaches that new life, faith, and union with Christ are granted by the Holy Spirit working through the sacraments.