Henry Major , , Ratcliffe, S. Samuel Kerkham , [Commentator]. By Richmond, Grace S. Grace Smith , , Relyea, C. Charles Mark , [Illustrator]. By Longinus, 1st cent. Herbert Lord , [Translator]. By Douglas, Robert B. By Kingsley, William C. Abram Stevens , [Contributor]. George Payn , [Translator]. Edith , , Millar, H. Harold Robert , [Illustrator], Brock, C. Charles Edmund , [Illustrator]. John Townsend , [Editor].
Robert Michael , , Ballantyne, R. Robert Michael , [Illustrator]. Howard Roscoe , , Wilson, F. English By Jacobs, W. Ethel May , Oddsfish! French By Volney, C. English By Porter, Eleanor H. Eleanor Hodgman , Oh, You Tex! Thomas William Hodgson , , Monsell, J. Thornton Waldo , Old Mr. Being a brief in appeal, pointing out errors of the lower tribunal. English By Hodder-Williams, J. Ontario Normal School Manuals: Consequently, its English name evolved from a misinterpretation of the oral pronunciation and referred to as Oporto in modern literature and by many speakers.
One of Portugal's internationally famous exports, port wine, is named for Porto, since the metropolitan area, and in particular the adegas of Vila Nova de Gaia, were responsible for the production and export of the fortified wine. The history of Porto dates back to the 4th century, to the Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula.
Celtic and Proto-Celtic ruins have been discovered in several areas, and their occupation has been dated to about BC. During the Roman occupation, the city developed as an important commercial port, primarily in the trade between Olissipona the modern Lisbon and Bracara Augusta the modern Braga. Porto fell under the control of the Moors during the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in This included the area from the Minho to the Douro River: Condado de Portucale , usually known as Condado Portucalense after reconquering the region north of Douro.
In , Porto was the site of the marriage of John I of Portugal and Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt; this symbolized a long-standing military alliance between Portugal and England. The Portuguese-English alliance, see the Treaty of Windsor is the world's oldest recorded military alliance. In the 14th and the 15th centuries, Porto's shipyards contributed to the development of Portuguese shipbuilding. This expedition by the King and his fleet, which counted among others Prince Henry, was followed by navigation and exploration along the western coast of Africa, initiating the Portuguese Age of Discovery.
The nickname given to the people of Porto began in those days; Portuenses are to this day, colloquially, referred to as tripeiros English: The invasion of the Napoleonic troops in Portugal under Marshal Soult also brought war to the city of Porto. On 29 March , as the population fled from the advancing French troops and tried to cross the river Douro over the Ponte das Barcas a pontoon bridge , the bridge collapsed under the weight. This event is still remembered by a plate at the Ponte D. The French army was rooted out of Porto by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, when his Anglo-Portuguese Army crossed the Douro river from the Mosteiro da Serra do Pilar a former convent in a brilliant daylight coup de main, using wine barges to transport the troops, so outflanking the French Army.
In 24 August , a liberal revolution occurred, quickly spreading without resistance to the rest of the country. In , a liberal constitution was accepted, partly through the efforts of the liberal assembly of Porto Junta do Porto. When Miguel I of Portugal took the Portuguese throne in , he rejected this constitution and reigned as an absolutist monarch. A Civil War was then fought from to between those supporting Constitutionalism, and those opposed to this change, keen on near-absolutism and led by D. Porto rebelled again and had to undergo a siege of eighteen months between and by the absolutist army.
Porto is also called "Cidade Invicta" English: Unvanquished City after successfully resisting the Miguelist siege. After the abdication of King Miguel, the liberal constitution was re-established. Known as the city of bridges, Porto built its first permanent bridge, the Ponte das Barcas a pontoon bridge , in Three years later, it collapsed under the weight of thousands of fugitives from the French Invasions during the Peninsular War, causing thousands of deaths.
Maria, a railway bridge, was inaugurated on 4 November of that same year; it was considered a feat of wrought iron engineering and was designed by Gustave Eiffel, notable for his Parisian tower. This last bridge was made by Teophile Seyrig, a former partner of Eiffel. Seyrig won a governmental competition that took place in Building began in and the bridge was opened to the public on 31 October Unrest by Republicans led to the first revolt against the monarchy in Porto on 31 January This resulted ultimately in the overthrow of the monarchy and proclamation of the republic by the 5 October revolution.
On 19 January , forces favorable to the restoration of the Monarchy launched in Porto a counter-revolution known as Monarchy of the North. During this time, Porto was the capital of the restored kingdom, as the movement was contained to the north. The monarchy was deposed less than a month later and no other monarchist revolution in Portugal happened again. The World Heritage site is defined in two concentric zones; the "Protected area", and within it the "Classified area".
The Classified area comprises the medieval borough located inside the 14th-century Romanesque wall. Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo , is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign 81— Capable of seating 50, spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology.
The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine. Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.
The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic. The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios Sol or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown.
Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome. In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre.
Os tripeiros: romance-chronica do seculo XIV (in Portuguese) from Project Gutenberg
Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers.
Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome. The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves.
He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity. In , the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13] which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about and underwent further repairs in or and again in An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III reigned — , possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in ; more work followed in [14] and The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around Animal hunts continued until at least , when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole.
The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in , causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse.
Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the midth century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V — planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.
He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there see Christians and the Colosseum. However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further.
The arena substructure was partly excavated in — and and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the s. The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in Several anti—death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty.
Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure.
It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. The central arena is an oval 87 m ft long and 55 m ft wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m 15 ft high, above which rose tiers of seating. The outer wall is estimated to have required over , cubic meters , cu yd of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by tons of iron clamps. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall.
The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic.
They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium. The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.
The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row.
They accessed their seats via vomitoria singular vomitorium , passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit. According to the Codex-Calendar of , the Colosseum could accommodate 87, people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50, They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society.
Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs.
The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use. The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights equites. The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens plebians and was divided into two sections. The lower part the immum was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part the summum was for poor citizens.
Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: Stone and later marble seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups. Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian.
This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators. Each tier was divided into sections maeniana by curved passages and low walls praecinctiones or baltei , and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row gradus of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds. Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release.
There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games.
Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus Morning School , where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools. Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m 59 ft from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio.
This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in with contests involving 11, animals and 10, gladiators over the course of days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae more properly known as navalia proelia or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean Corfiot Greeks and the Corinthians.
This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around.
Project Gutenberg DVD - April 2010
It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum. Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology.
They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death. The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under and over EU citizens' entrances are free. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae "Marvels of the City of Rome" , which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms.
Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason. It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site.
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Pope Pius V — is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his book Roma ex ethnica sacra. Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration.
The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time. At the instance of St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Grande em Fundo Preto. Situated right beside dowtown Rio, the occupation of the Morro hill dates from , just 35 years after the city was founded. Geraldo's Bar on is one of three bars on the hill. I'd hoped to get a long-exposure night shot, with the tables and chairs in the middle of the road, as they usually are at night.
But, would you believe it, it rained! I'll admit I was annoyed at first. Until I saw the street lights reflecting off the cobbles Paragliding is a recreational and competitive flying sport. A paraglider is a free-flying, foot-launched aircraft. The pilot sits in a harness suspended below a fabric wing, whose shape is formed by the pressure of air entering vents in the front of the wing. Sometimes credited with the greatest development in parachutes since Leonardo da Vinci, the American Domina Jalbert invented in the Parafoil which had sectioned cells in an aerofoil shape; an open leading edge and a closed trailing edge, inflated by passage through the air — the ram-air design.
Bohn followed him and glided down to the football pitch in the valley metres below. Such wings comprise two layers of fabric which are connected to internal supporting material in such a way as to form a row of cells. By leaving most of the cells open only at the leading edge, incoming air ram-air pressure keeps the wing inflated, thus maintaining its shape.
When inflated, the wing's cross-section has the typical teardrop aerofoil shape. The pilot is supported underneath the wing by a network of lines. The lines are gathered into two sets as left and right risers. The risers collect the lines in rows from front to back in either 3 or 4 rows. The risers are connected to the pilot's harness by two carabiners. Combined weight of wing, harness, reserve, instruments, helmet, etc. The glide ratio of paragliders ranges from 8: For comparison, a typical skydiving parachute will achieve about 3: A hang glider will achieve about An idling gliding Cessna will achieve 9: Some sailplanes can achieve a glide ratio of up to Beginner wings will be in the lower part of this range, high-performance wings in the upper part of the range.
The range for safe flying will be somewhat smaller. For storage and carrying, the wing is usually folded into a rucksack bag , which can then be stowed in a large backpack along with the harness. For pilots who may not want the added weight or fuss of a backpack, the harness itself can be used to carry the wing, though this is less comfortable, and thus less favorable for longer hikes. In this case the wing within the rucksack is buckled into the harness seat, which is then slung over the shoulders.
Recent developments in light-weight harness design include the ability to turn the harness inside out such that it becomes the backpack, thus removing the need for a second storage system. Tandem paragliders, designed to carry the pilot and one passenger, are larger but otherwise similar. They usually fly faster with higher trim speeds, are more resistant to collapse, and have a slightly higher sink rate compared to solo paragliders.
The pilot is loosely and comfortably buckled into a harness which offers support in both the standing and sitting positions. Modern harnesses are designed to be as comfortable as a lounge chair in the sitting position. Many harnesses even have an adjustable 'lumbar support'. Parachutes, including skydiving canopies, are generally used for descending, such as jumping out of an aircraft or for dropping cargo; while paragliders are generally used for ascending. Paragliders are categorized as "ascending parachutes" by canopy manufacturers worldwide, and are designed for "free flying" meaning flight without a tether for tethered flight amusement, see parasailing.
However, in areas without high launch points, paragliders may be towed aloft by a ground vehicle or a stationary winch, after which they are released, creating much the same effect as a mountain launch. Such tethered launches can give a paraglider pilot a higher starting point than many mountains do, offering similar opportunity to catch thermals and to remain airborne by "thermaling" and other forms of lift. Birds are highly sensitive to atmospheric pressure, and can tell when they are in rising or sinking air. People can sense the acceleration when they first hit a thermal, but cannot detect the difference between constant rising air and constant sinking air, so turn to technology to help.
It also shows altitude: The main purpose of a variometer is in helping a pilot find and stay in the "core" of a thermal to maximise height gain, and conversely indicating when he or she is in sinking air, and needs to find rising air. The more advanced variometers have an integrated GPS. This is not only more convenient, but also allows to record the flight in three dimensions.
The track of the flight is digitally signed, stored and can be downloaded after the landing. Digitally signed tracks can be used as proof for record claims, replacing the 'old' method of photo documentation. These controls are called 'brakes' and provide the primary and most general means of control in a paraglider. The brakes are used to adjust speed, to steer in addition to weight-shift , and flare during landing.
In addition to manipulating the brakes, a paraglider pilot must also lean in order to steer properly. Such 'weight-shifting' can also be used for more limited steering when brake use is unavailable, such as when under 'big ears' see below. More advanced control techniques may also involve weight-shifting. A kind of foot control called the 'speed bar' also 'accelerator' attaches to the paragliding harness and connects to the leading edge of the paraglider wing, usually through a system of at least two pulleys see animation in margin. This control is used to increase speed, and does so by decreasing the wing's angle of attack.
This control is necessary because the brakes can only slow the wing from what is called 'trim speed' no brakes applied. The accelerator is needed to go faster than this. More advanced means of control can be obtained by manipulating the paraglider's risers or lines directly:. The technique, known as 'big ears', is used to increase rate of descent see picture. This destroys the laminar flow of air over the aerofoil, dramatically reducing the lift produced by the canopy, thus inducing a higher rate of descent.
Another text, in english, from the addrees www. Paraglider flies is the simplest type to regard the world from the bird perspective some steps a gently bent slope down and already overcome pilot and passenger the force of gravity and to float of it. Our professional pilots are extremely qualified and possess a special pilot banknote, which permits it to them to offer paraglider of passenger flights. I had some bad news in my last days, so I kept away from Flickr cuz I wasn't happy. And the weather isn't good for photographs The rain doesn't stop for a week and I'm out of images!
I'll try to answer all the comments I receive as soon as possible. I didn't want to make any mistery, those are fluorescent lamps. I climbed a chair I shot them from there up Estou sem imagens para postar. The Duomo, as it is ordinarily called, was begun in in the Gothic style to the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and completed structurally in with the dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi.
The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed. The cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is currently Giuseppe Betori. The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9, by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence.
The building of this vast project was to last years, the collective efforts of several generations; Arnolfo's plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size. After Arnolfo died in , work on the cathedral slowed for the following thirty years.
The project obtained new impetus, when the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in in Santa Reparata. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio's design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died in , Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was again halted due to the Black PDeath in In work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, commencing with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels.
In Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini — who divided the center nave in four square bays. By the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by , and by only the dome remained incomplete. On 19 August , the Arte della Lana announced a structural design competition for erecting Neri's dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, who was supported by Cosimo de Medici.
Ghiberti had been winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in and lifelong competition between the two remained acute. Brunelleschi won and received the commission. Ghiberti, appointed coadjutator, was drawing a salary equal to Brunelleschi's and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of florins, would potentially earn equal credit, while spending most of his time on other projects.
When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him.
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In Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility. Work started on the dome in and was completed in The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar. It was the first 'octagonal' dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame: It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance.
During the consecration service in , Guillaume Dufay's similarly unique motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed. The structure of this motet was strongly influenced by the structure of the dome. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century. The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara white , Prato green , Siena red , Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto's Bell Tower.
There are two lateral doors, the Doors of the Canonici south side and the Door of the Mandorla north side with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six lateral windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
During its long history, this cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence , heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de' Medici on Sunday, 26 April with Lorenzo Il Magnifico barely escaping death in the Pazzi conspiracy. The cathedral of Florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross.
The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers. The dimensions of the building are enormous: The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 metres 75 ft. The height from pavement to the opening of the lantern in the dome is also 90 metres ft. By the beginning of the fifteenth century, after a hundred years of construction, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic features of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in His brick model, 4.
The commitment to reject traditional Gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravante's model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts, in addition to being a style favored by central Italy's traditional enemies to the north. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri's dome would need an internal defense against spreading hoop stress , but none had yet been designed. The building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems.
Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. A wooden form had held the Pantheon dome aloft while its concrete set, but for the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting 52 metres ft above the floor and spanning 44 metres ft , there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of bricks, due to its light weight compared to stone and easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction.
To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco and still displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi's control over the construction. Brunelleschi's solutions were ingenious. The spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains.
Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together. Each of Brunelleschi's stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams 43 centimetres 17 in in diameter and no more than 2. The rails were connected end-to-end with lead-glazed iron splices.
The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. He was also able to accomplish this by setting vertical "ribs" on the corners of the octagon curving towards the center point.
The ribs had slits, where platforms could be erected out of and work could progressively continue as they worked up,a system for scaffolding. A circular masonry dome, such as that of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet.
Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the non-circular dome. The outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only 60 centimetres 2 ft thick at the base and 30 centimetres 1 ft thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes.
To counteract hoop stress, the outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome at its base; it has no embedded chains. A modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses was centuries into the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built.
To lift 37, tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi's chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri's, that is commonly associated with the dome.
Brunelleschi's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition. He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects.
The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi's friend Michelozzo in The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July and fell down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later. The commission for this bronze ball [atop the lantern] went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci.
Fascinated by Filippo's [Brunelleschi's] machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention. Leonardo might have also participated in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris "Remember the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore". The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo.
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is still the largest masonry dome in the world. The building of the cathedral had started in with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in with the placing of Verrochio's copper ball atop the lantern.
It was dismantled in by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre. A few new designs had been proposed in later years but the models of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna were not accepted. Work began in and completed in The three huge bronze doors date from to They are adorned with scenes from the life of the Madonna.
They represent from left to right: Charity among the founders of Florentine philanthropic institutions, Christ enthroned with Mary and John the Baptist, and Florentine artisans, merchants and humanists. The pediment above the central portal contains a half-relief by Tito Sarrocchi of Mary enthroned holding a flowered scepter. Giuseppe Cassioli sculpted the right hand door. Between the rose window and the tympanum, there is a gallery with busts of great Florentine artists. The Gothic interior is vast and gives an empty impression.
The relative bareness of the church corresponds with the austerity of religious life, as preached by Girolamo Savonarola. Many decorations in the church have been lost in the course of time, or have been transferred to the Museum Opera del Duomo, such as the magnificent cantorial pulpits the singing galleries for the choristers of Luca della Robbia and Donatello. As this cathedral was built with funds from the public, some important works of art in this church honour illustrious men and military leaders of Florence:. This painting is especially interesting because it shows us, apart from scenes of the Divine Comedy, a view on Florence in , a Florence such as Dante himself could not have seen in his time.
This almost monochrome fresco, transferred on canvas in the 19th c. This fresco, transferred on canvas in the 19th c. However, it is more richly decorated and gives more the impression of movement. Both frescoes portray the condottieri as heroic figures riding triumphantly. Both painters had problems when applying in painting the new rules of perspective to foreshortening: These busts all date from the 15th and the 16th century. Above the main door is the colossal clock face with fresco portraits of four Prophets or Evangelists by Paolo Uccello This one-handed liturgical clock shows the 24 hours of the hora italica Italian time , a period of time ending with sunset at 24 hours.
This timetable was used till the 18th century. This is one of the few clocks from that time that still exist and are in working order. The church is particularly notable for its 44 stained glass windows, the largest undertaking of this kind in Italy in the 14th and 15th century. The windows in the aisles and in the transept depict saints from the Old and the New Testament, while the circular windows in the drum of the dome or above the entrance depict Christ and Mary.
Christ crowning Mary as Queen, the stained-glass circular window above the clock, with a rich range of coloring, was designed by Gaddo Gaddi in the early 14th century. Donatello designed the stained-glass window Coronation of the Virgin in the drum of the dome the only one that can be seen from the nave. The beautiful funeral monument of Antonio d'Orso , bishop of Florence, was made by Tino da Camaino, the most important funeral sculptor of his time. The monumental crucifix, behind the Bishop's Chair at the high altar, is by Benedetto da Maiano — The choir enclosure is the work of the famous Bartolommeo Bandinelli.
The ten-paneled bronze doors of the sacristy were made by Luca della Robbia, who has also two glazed terracotta works inside the sacristy: Angel with Candlestick and Resurrection of Christ. In the back of the middle of the three apses is the altar of Saint Zanobius, first bishop of Florence. Its silver shrine, a masterpiece of Ghiberti, contains the urn with his relics. The central compartment shows us one his miracles, the reviving of a dead child. Above this shrine is the painting Last Supper by the lesser-known Giovanni Balducci.
There was also a glass-paste mosaic panel The Bust of Saint Zanobius by the 16th century miniaturist Monte di Giovanni, but it is now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. Many decorations date from the 16th-century patronage of the Grand Dukes, such as the pavement in colored marble, attributed to Baccio d'Agnolo and Francesco da Sangallo — It was suggested that the interior of the 45 metre ft wide dome should be covered with a mosaic decoration to make the most of the available light coming through the circular windows of the drum and through the lantern.