Th e two students , and one of them was injured. He the butterfly on a pin and put it in his collection. N o one believed it was that easy to the aardvark-shaving contest. How hard are they to shave? M ountain climbing is an sport. O n hazy nights, you can see a around the moon. She is , and everyone loves to listen to her. Th e river has no straight lines to it and from east to west. A forceful and person can convince everyone. He the food so that everyone got some. H er of the book was used to help other students write summaries.
He showed that he was the matter by yelling at the student. When I asked him to pick up the four v to worsen; to heighten hundred-pound weight, he. S he is very and touchy about m priggish; excessively sexual discussions. E veryone understood his point of view propriety, modesty because of its. It has always been said that if one works hard, one will. Th ey themselves and were discovered in their deceit. H e has always shown hatred for certain groups because he is a.
Th e two teams fought to a in regulation time and had to go on playing. The brain has a side and a less influential side. E veryone ran in fear when the appeared. F armers expect times when crops fail. A conquered country often territory to the victorious country. I n order to for their crime, they had to eat their weight in owl pellets, which is a lot of pellets. Customers often get a when they buy a lot of products. Th e drunk lay down on the grass in the v to cripple financially; pouring rain. The lawn was , to make poor and so was he. Th e swift decline of the stock market in side a lot of financiers.
Eggbert was unaware of the effects of being a yodeler in a yodel-free society. A fter the soldiers invaded the town, they m believable; possible and burned it. H e made arguments, and people accepted them. Th ey decided they were going to win despite v to rob; to plunder numerous. An inquiry the circumstances around the crime. H e is an idealist who has ideals. S tupidity was in as members of the Dept.
Th at man is a who shows off all the time. O ne witness on the stand that he had not seen the incident. One detective about the existence of a motive in the crime. Th e glue on the paper to his fingers when he touched it. L ittle Sarah showed disregard for the safety of her peers when it came to stacking wooden blocks. A at the beginning of the word changes its meaning. Th ey had not planned to meet, but did meet in a way. The lake was because there n small or insignificant was no wind. I was so nervous I could not remember even one part of the speech I had memorized.
S he her letter of intent to her original application. H e his dog and was fined for his inhumanity. A judge and jury the man and set him free. S he the child for taking too m contemptible; hateful much candy. Life preservers have to be , or they are of no use. S he the year-long course m weightless; capable of into three months.
M ucous-eating Marvin thought his habit was exceptional, unusual—eccentric at v to shrink; to fit into a most, but certainly not. I n certain religions, parents n source; origin newborns in water in a baptismal ceremony. We lost the game by fifty points and considered it a. One escaping prisoner the sophisticated police by running into the woods. Th e producers of the show repetitious him for the part. Some jobs are exciting; others,. The of the two cars could be heard blocks away. S uddenly, Ogden had to v to come face to face his fear of flying hockey pucks.
H e tried to sell me a worthless computer, defiance or hostility and I called him a. C ats and dogs are animals; m having to do with the deer and bears are not. Th eir defeated king his loss n swindler; cheat; by attacking civilians. He the thieves by sounding an alarm. H is answers were because n fighter; attacker he was in a hurry. Th e Grand Canyon provides a v to prevent; to frustrate panorama for the visitor.
J ocelyn insisted on greeting everyone in to stray alphabetical order, a course from which she would not. Th ere were two in the impressive boxing ring. Th e bird sang a melody at twilight. Bright is an for dark. O ur principal the students in the National Honor Society. P eople with diabetes should from ingesting sugar. Th e cliffs suffered from because no one had planted trees or grass.
H er money was , and the bank teller confiscated it. Our local minister the state governor to pardon the man. Th e senate for the spring legislative session. When asked what his name is, Anthony always shouts it; when told to pipe down, he gets about it. A ll the people knew they were under the rule of a despot. He tried to make a parallel, or an , between the two things. B udget cuts forced the cafeteria staff to the third-grade class using a bag of Skittles and a chunk of tuna. O dysseus the gods to spare his ship.
B rutus killed Julius Caesar because he thought Caesar would become a. Th e events occurred in order, and a time line was easy to make. Ogden suggested that Edward all his rude comments into one. D ogs are known for their and are often called Fido. S he is one of the most cordial and people I have ever met.
Th e red rose he sent his passion. When the mall closed, there was a great of teenagers. You your words to make them understood. Th e odds against me me for a while. A Roman soldier always has an eagle as an on his helmet. H e has a body because he was brought up in a very cold climate.
When the water is very , cold-water fish abound in the lake. Th e crowd for more action between the boxers. K idnappers the child and demanded a ransom. A recipe indicates what the are for a special dish. We before the sight of the ghost.
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Th at soldier was and went into battle without a word. G ardeners look forward to the of new plants. Krumry insisted on chewing with his mouth open. Th ey only after being ordered to suspend activities. She wrote an that covered five hundred pages. Polluted water is not water.
Th e number in attendance because of the sub-freezing weather. O ne prisoner a guard and escaped. Th ere were great of people buying Three 6 Mafia tickets today at TicketMajortron. H because everything he did failed. Th e geese were frightened and m tangled; complex around the yard. Tabloid newspapers often m useless; ineffective famous people by telling lies about them. Th ey wanted everyone to see what they were doing and acted in an manner. The syrupy-sweet chick flick was sure to nausea in Brandon and Jay. P olice used bloodhounds to search for the of; to be thankful;. Th eir of a good time differed greatly from mine.
H e their efforts and v to call; to summon up congratulated them. Two holidays that year, and both were celebrated on the same day. Th ey had a long on the matter and finally settled it. Th ere is a definite to this book because it was thoroughly planned. When I got on the bus, someone me, and I dropped my package.
A fter a long trip, my skin felt with the dust from the road. A good student is an one who asks questions when in doubt. Th at carried a sword into the lion-filled arena. O ne minor incident into a 3. H is disappearance startled 4. J immy refused to that 5. A was found guilty and sentenced to hard labor. We on the journey by v to obey; to pay boarding the train. H is scheme of eating magnificent thirteen pounds of chicken gizzards was v to begin; to commence thwarted.
The coach a positive attitude among his players. Th at genius had an talent that he inherited from his parents. When there is a solar , the light on earth becomes very eerie. S hannon the nasty green dress to be bad fashion for the wedding. A felony is a crime. Deer and bear are among the of Dearbere National Park. O ur game in a lopsided unreadable score. I could not understand his writing because it of a region was. R evolutionaries the king and v to climax; to result in formed a new government. Due to his multiple personalities, George was known for singing three-part with himself.
Th e young man suffered back spasms because n agreement; oneness he when he sat. A musical preceded the major work of the evening. H e tales constantly, and no droop one knew when he was telling the truth. S ome sounds coming from the deep woods were and frightening. He was bilingual and was in two languages.
Krumry felt his raising someone or knowledge should be enough something to the status to get him elected Teacher of the Year. S hips when they get caught in a whirlpool. Tyrants often seek from v to revolve; to spin their subjects. H is stories were so specific and that the children wanted him to tell more. P eople who act out of try to satisfy everyone. Th e of food to the needy was carried out by the Red Cross. The president of the college a great honor on the special student. You might call your family a several generations if it rules for centuries.
When he saw the two failures on his report v to award; to bestow card, he was a person. Glib thought he could do without pennies. As far as he was concerned, those v to hinder; to impede coins were. H e stood in my way and worth keeping my progress. One nurse usually the medications to the patients. F ive hunters followed their for several days. N o one likes a winner who after being victorious. Everything about the new king looked and regal. H er confidence when she to believe in things he received praise from her superiors.
A was on the loose, and travelers had to be on the lookout. That night shall follow day is an truth. C ats themselves constantly. E sther fantasized that math was by Ed and his giant Publisher Clearing House check just for her. O ne of his personality had never before surfaced. His mistake was and obvious to all.
When he drank the , he became the strongest man in the world. S tudents dread teachers who m unreasonable; give grades carelessly. Too much noise and distracts me. H is latest in school got him six days of detention. I watching competitive ballplayers playing in important games. Th e referees could not ignore the foul toward the end of the game. Key Words for the College Bound 15 4. Interest in the sport because the coach was too strict. A huge crowd turned out for his fortieth birthday.
H er hurt him more than her anger. When a person commits an act, that person is responsible for it. S ome say that should be tried as adults in certain court cases. C onstruction have caused some buildings to sag. M edical students frogs to see what the internal structure looks like. L and developers the m imperfect; open to ignorant by selling them worthless plots. H e told her he was there for the of her grief. A s was the weekly tradition, the Bovine advantage of Club upon the Waffle n period of time; House to graze for an hour. H er career was and most noteworthy.
His boss him to do the job. A s Claire waved to Sally, her frantic n motion made to express hailed a speeding taxi. D ictators issue that one speech, or signify an must obey under the threat of execution. H e the car on ice and skidded. Th e citizens in the peaceful town had non-warlike worked out agreements.
The witnesses signed an in the court action. L egislatures local authorities to execute the law. S ome ball players have styles that no one should try to copy. E veryone had fun at the Boy Scout , except Joe, who wished he was at the Hamboree instead. C riminals receive if they testify against other criminals. Th e new uniforms were neon green with orange and purple stars and suede fringe trim. G lass is and should be handled carefully. His utter failure made him a person. Th e only thing more than the onscreen deaths in Hostel was the fight in the ticket line to get in.
H ard work and helped her become a wealthy woman. Tides with the gravitational pull of the moon. S ome people rather than involve themselves in an active life. H e all of his energy when he lifted the piano. I guanaman and his devious , the Grey Gecko, committed insurance fraud. The arrested man his innocence to everyone who would listen. D o not take your out on anyone other than the person who caused it. S ilks and brocades gave the room a appearance. C oaches often their players into performing well.
Key Words for the College Bound n supporter; follower dis Ci ple 3. As a of the cause, he tried to convince others to support it. S tudents often their studies after graduation from college. B uds on plants in the early spring. It was apparent that the bluebird of happiness would never on Dr. We need a fair and person unprejudiced to tell us what to do. S hips usually anchor on the side of an island to stay out of the wind. I f you your principles, you land have nothing on which to rely.
A n artist uses a to mix colors. S he wrote a letter of for the scholarship she was given. Th e transmitter nothing but static. O ur king the castle with higher walls. She her agreement, but would not state it clearly. H e wore a outfit that included a dunce cap and a false nose. When people talk about the good old days, they talk about a lost. Th e basketball coach instilled a for winning in his players. C alvin simply the sequined costumes worn in Waste Sanitation Engineers: H er behavior was and punishable by a long jail sentence.
C hildren always create a with their toys. Art lovers the painter and all but made a god of him. C omputers were originally used to store and hem and haw separate for research. Th inking that he was from the law, he did whatever he wanted to do. A good has a beginning, a middle, and an end. Th e prisoner seemed for his acts, so the judge gave him a light sentence.
Th e Salvation Army for money at Christmastime every year. Key Words for the College Bound 1. Referees players who flagrantly break the rules. A great boulder toward the edge of the cliff during the avalanche. A complete would benefit the malfunctioning engine. The overly sharp knife his finger. Th oughtful hikers fires before they break camp. A bank on a house prevents its sale without notice to the lender. I reland is known for its ways and warm welcomes. Try as she might, Nancy could not think of a funny, politically correct sentence using the word. A good athlete in any sport has to have.
Th e generals and tried to find a solution. Th ey shared their by helping the poor. F ield mice the house, and an exterminator was called in to kill them. Th omas Edison was known for his down and inventiveness. F loods river banks and or encasing carry away topsoil.
D ogs show to their 5. The federal government alcohol sales during Prohibition. H is in the community grew with every good deed he did.
You emotional pain when you laugh at someone. Th e perfect of the tissue box made it difficult for Mr. Glib to see the napping students. E ndurance should be in the mind of a long-distance runner. During the tolling of the midnight hour, a appeared and disappeared. When he fell down, he got an on his leg and had to go to the nurse. Th e wind disappeared, and its absence the ship. Olympian o lym pi an 2. A man a bystander and was arrested. Th e team was so good that people thought it an team.
When asked to name a bottom-dwelling fish, Garvey in his search for an answer. P olice put around crime scenes to keep people away. P eople over thirty are considered by ten-year-olds. She the odds against her and then took a chance. Th e teacher one student as class secretary. M agicians can sometimes perform estimate acts that puzzle their audience. Th e greenish-blue in Mrs. H down on us. H is and thoughtful approach made things easier for everyone.
A n auto mechanic ruined my carburetor. H e himself of all his goods when he went bankrupt. A stronomers search the for new heavenly bodies. Kristin begged her mother not to tell the epic of her potty training to another prospective boyfriend. H e was successful in business and decided it was too to leave. W hen you your food supplies, you must think about replenishing them. S he thought of naming the pizza because it was good. P lants when they are properly nourished. Key Words for the College Bound 21 m unconquerable; courageous in vin ci ble 1.
The tyrant ran his with an iron hand, and the citizens suffered. G auges on the instrument n government; the voltage and prevented an overload. O ur professor was known for his broad and n outburst; outbreak insights into literature. He had to use a control because the automatic control failed. Th e teacher the student for superior work.
Teenagers rock stars because of their fame. S he suffered great when her boyfriend left her. Th e man used in the holy place and was expelled. H is nature is so that he is welcome anywhere. H er guess was not exact, but was. S he her ideas in such a way that all would understand. When he across the floor, the whole place shakes. Th ere were errors in the calculations, and the whole study was void.
Th e under the picture did not properly identify the person shown. He was an person who wanted to control everything. The registration of students was of v to burden; to importance and had to be done first. A few many if the many allow m dominant; greatest a dictatorship. B reakfast was a , and he observed it carefully everyday. R oads become during avalanche season. Th e country new citizens quickly and welcomed their contributions. M y grandfather made me the of his estate, and I managed it for years. If I rude behavior, I am looking for trouble.
A las, the glass of ice-cold tap water was merely a. H er manner was ; everyone admired her gentleness. When sensitivity declines, another sense becomes sharper to compensate. H e his importance by bragging about his achievements. When you enter the military, you are first sent to training. Th e car off the road and hit a tree. G arvey had to why one sock was always sacrificed to every load of laundry.
A ctors test their true abilities when they attempt on stage. Key Words for the College Bound 23 op press 2. Th e Emancipation Proclamation released indentured blacks from. A fter the bear raided the campsite, Ogden had to use his jar of honey. S he the teacher to explain the process more thoroughly. H is speeches excited the citizens, and he as a leader.
He his allegiance before the senate and was elected. Successful football teams their coaches with water when victory is near. S ome decisions are so that n paradise; perfect place caution should be involved in making them. A bearing the royal arms hung about her neck. She gave the teacher her that she would be on time in the future.
M ud slides are after heavy rains in the Northwest. I his anxiety and tried to reassure him. P eople sometimes to calm their nerves. His ideas were so complicated that a lot of students found them. Two countries the territory that each claimed. O ur college dean honors on the top students. Th e angle at the of the triangle was a forty-five-degree angle. He the book because he thought it was too long. Shakespeare loved to introduce into his plays to add foreshadowing and mystery.
The event was difficult to define because it had meanings to it. Teachers students so that they will learn. S ensitive people those who are having troubles. You may depend on his word because he has a name. G oliath thought David , but he was wrong. Lava from the volcano that had been dormant for a century.
E ddie is a seasoned when it comes to naming flavors and brands of chewing gum found under the desks. Th e wind was not blowing, and the water was. H is bizarre behavior a lot of people. For example, suppose you are a jurist in a criminal case, and—given only the videotape evidence—you cannot determine whether the defendant or his twin committed the crime. In this case, you are not justified in concluding that the defendant is guilty, and that is because there is a live possibility that you cannot rule out, and this possibility would show that the defendant is innocent.
The same might be said of premise 2 in the argument from evil: And if so, we are in no position to endorse premise 2 of the argument from evil. Skeptical theism provides a second, independent case for agnosticism about premise 2. This case takes the form of an undercutting defeater for the standard defense of premise 2.
Why should we think that it is likely that at least some of the evils in our world are gratuitous? The standard defense of this claim is as follows:.
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Well, it seems like many of the evils in our world are gratuitous, so it is likely that at least some instances of evil are gratuitous. Put differently, we cannot see any reason for God to allow some of the evils in our world, therefore there we should conclude that there is no reason for God to allow some of the evils in our world. The skeptical theist denies the strength of this noseeum inference.
The fact that an evil appears to be gratuitous to us is not indicative of whether or not it is gratuitous. So on the one hand, the skeptical theist is happy to grant that it seems as if many of the evils in our world are gratuitous. However, she denies that this fact is good evidence for the claim that such evils really are gratuitous. And hence we have no reason to endorse premise 2 in the argument from evil. As a reply to the argument from evil, skeptical theism seems initially quite plausible.
Surely if there were a God, there would be many, many cases in which we could see no reason for a course of action although such reasons were available to God. Some things that look unjustifiable given our own perspectives are justifiable once one has all the facts. Besides relying on this initial plausibility, skeptical theists have defended their view in roughly three ways. The fact that a young child cannot discern a reason for her parents allowing her to suffer pain does not constitute a good reason for the young child to conclude that there are no such reasons.
In this case, a clear example of the noseeum inference fails. Other similar examples are easy to come by: It would be silly to reason as follows: I cannot see a good reason for that move, therefore, there is no good reason for that move. If these cases are persuasive, the skeptical theist can defend her position accordingly.
The cognitive distance between a young child and her parents is analogous to the cognitive position between a human agent and God. Thus, the fact that a human is unable to see a reason for allowing a particular evil is not a good reason for concluding that God would have no reason for allowing that evil. On its face, premise 2 is very straightforward: But when we get clear on what that means, we see that this kind of judgment is extraordinarily complex.
It says, in effect, that we are able to identify some instances of evil which were not necessary either to avoid an evil equally bad or worse or to secure some compensating good. How could we ever know such complex facts? For example, consider the following:. On the night that Sir Winston Churchill was conceived, had Lady Randolph Churchill fallen asleep in a slightly different position, the precise pathway that each of the millions of spermatozoa took would have been slightly altered. As a result…Sir Winston Churchill, as we knew him, would not have existed, with the likely result that the evolution of World War II would have been substantially different… Durston , p.
On the face of it, it appears that it would not matter what position Lady Churchill sleeps in. Put differently, it appears that there is no good reason to prefer her sleeping in one position rather than another. But given the specifics of human reproduction, this assumption is unwarranted and—in this case—plausibly false. So the fact that we cannot see a reason is not indicative of whether or not there is any such reason.
One of the most sophisticated defenses of skeptical theism insists that some sort of enabling premise must be reasonably believed before noseeum inferences are warranted and, further, that this enabling premise is not reasonably believed with regard to inferences about what God would allow. Two such enabling premises have been proposed in the literature: However, such skeptical theists have insisted that it is not reasonable for me to think that if there were a reason for allowing any particular evil that I would be aware of it.
The second strategy has to do with our knowledge of the representativeness of the inductive sample used in the noseeum inference. The crucial question then becomes whether or not any of us have good reason to think that our sample of goods, evils, and the connections between them is suitably representative. Some philosophers think that we do have such reason for example, Tooley Others think that our knowledge is not representative for example, Sennett Others think we cannot tell one way or the other whether our sample is representative, and thus we lack good reason for thinking that the sample is representative, as required by the second strategy for example, Bergmann As with any form of skepticism, skeptical theism has its critics.
Some of these critics are theists who think that skeptical theism has unbecoming implications for issues of importance to theism such as knowledge of God, relationship with God, and the like. Other critics think that skeptical theism has unbecoming implications for more general issues such as everyday knowledge, moral living, and so on. The objections to skeptical theism fall roughly into five different sorts. One prominent criticism of skeptical theism is that it eliminates the potential for a close relationship between humans and God. It does so in two ways. First, if skeptical theism undercuts arguments against the existence of God by highlighting the fact that we know very little about how God would act all-things-considered , then by parity of reasoning it also undercuts arguments for the existence of God.
Skeptical theist considerations seem to suggest agnosticism about whether God would create a world, finely-tune the universe, create rational beings, and so on, despite the fact that each of these are assumptions in standard arguments for the existence of God. Being in a close relationship with another person requires some kind of understanding of what the other person wants and why the other person acts as she does.
Furthermore, communication is important to a relationship, but skeptical theists should not trust communication from God including divine commands, mystical experiences, and so on. Because for all we know, God has a reason for deceiving us that is beyond our ken. Any non-global version of skepticism will face objections that attempt to stretch the skepticism to new areas of inquiry.
One objection of this sort claims that skeptical theism breaks down into a near-global skepticism that disallows what we might think of as everyday knowledge. Consider the claim that all crows are black. This seems a perfect example of everyday knowledge. But a skeptical crowist might respond as follows: Others have argued not that skeptical theism is incompatible with any particular knowledge claim but that it is incompatible with a promising set of theories in epistemology. In particular, skeptical theism appears to rule out so-called commonsense epistemologies that rely on something like the principle of credulity: The problem is that skeptical theists grant that at least some evils appear gratuitous, thus, by the principle of credulity, they ought to grant that it is reasonable to believe that at least some evils are gratuitous.
But that is precisely what skeptical theism denies. Consider an instance of childhood cancer. The skeptical theist is unwilling to grant that this evil is gratuitous because—for all we know—it was necessary either to prevent some evil equally bad or worse or to secure some compensating good. Furthermore, if the evil is not gratuitous, it seems that it would be morally permissible or even morally obligatory for God to allow that evil to occur. This is how the skeptical theist hopes to get God off the hook: The putative problem is that the skeptical theist seems to be committed to a consequentialist view of ethics, and many philosophers find such a view unappealing.
The apparent implications result from the fact that a skeptical theist seems to allow that no matter how horrendous a particular instance of evil might be, it can always be justified given good enough consequences. Thus, if one thinks that there are some things that morally ought not be allowed regardless of consequences such as the torture of an innocent person , this putative implication counts against skeptical theism.
Finally, the most pressing objection to skeptical theism is that it seems to preclude both the possibility of engaging in moral deliberation and the possibility of moral knowledge. The putative problem can be sketched as follows: For example, suppose a skeptical theist comes upon a young boy drowning in a pond. His skeptical theism seems to commit him to reasoning as follows: Skeptical theists have offered a number of interesting responses to this objection. Others think that what is right for God to allow might be different than what is right for us to allow.
In that case, it might be wrong for you to let the boy drown even though you cannot conclude for skeptical theist reasons that it is wrong for God to do the same. Still others insist that there is no unique difficulty here: In that case, though it is true that moral deliberation is difficult given skeptical theism, it is also difficult given any view of religious epistemology.
The origin of the American environmental justice movement can be traced back to the emergence of the American Civil Rights movement of the s, and more specifically to the U. Civil Rights Act of Although environmentalism and the environmental justice movement are related, there is a difference. The efforts of the environmental justice movement differ from those of the environmentalist movement in that, at the heart of environmental injustice, there are issues of racism and socio-economic injustice. The work examines the widening economic, health and environmental disparities between racial groups and socioeconomic groups at the end of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first centuries.
Bullard states that in writing the book he operated with the assumption that all Americans have a basic right to live, work, play, go to school and worship in a clean and healthy environment DD , xii. The lawsuit originated from a plan to site a municipal landfill in a suburban, middle-income neighborhood of single-family homeowners.
The lawsuit became known as Bearn v. Southwestern Waste Management and was the first lawsuit in the United States charging environmental discrimination in waste facility location under the Civil Rights Act. The emergence of the environmental justice movement is directly linked to the environmental movement. Some contend that environmentalism and the environmental justice movement are so interrelated that the movement has essentially redefined the nature of environmentalism. The influence of the environmental justice movement has broadened the spectrum of environmentalism to include what might be regarded as the trivialities of life, according to Bullard.
This includes activities such as play and attending school. It also has implications for something as simple as where humans, animals and plants reside.
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Bullard points out that the environmental justice movement in the United States focuses upon a diversity of areas including wilderness and wildlife preservation, resource conservation, pollution abatement and population control DD , 1. The environmental justice movement served to interrelate the physical, social, and cultural dimensions of human, non-human and plant existence under the rubric of environmentalism in general and environmental justice in particular.
Bullard, The environmental justice movement has indirectly heightened concern not only for human existence, but also for animals and plant life. The reality is that no single definition of environmental justice exists. However, a significant legal definition used by the Environmental Protection Agency describes environmental justice as:. Fair treatment means that no population, due to policy or economic disempowerment, is forced to bear a disproportionate burden of the negative human health or environmental impacts of pollution or other environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of federal, state, local, and tribal programs and policies EPA , 2.
The environmental justice movement is concerned with the pursuit of social justice and the preamble to the Principles of environmental justice adopted at the First National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit in Washington D. According to the environmental justice movement, all Americans, regardless of whether they are white or black, rich or poor, are entitled to equal protection under the law. The question then emerges as to whose and which backyards these toxic entities will be located? Bullard concluded based upon sociological analysis that these entities frequently end up in poor, powerless, black communities rather than affluent suburbs and he adds that this has been the case repeatedly DD , 4.
It is important to note that the movement is critical of Western theories of jurisprudence and philosophy, which are founded upon Kantian, Cartesian and Lockean assumptions. For instance, Kantian jurisprudence is committed to the idea of the universality of rules in addressing a wide range of moral issues, whereas Cartesian dualism devalues the significance of physical existence and threats to that existence, and the philosophical conclusions of John Locke preserves individualism at the expense of the collective group.
The environmental justice movement rejects each of these, concluding that no universal law or rule can be applied in a diversity of moral contexts, that the physical existence of a collective body is to be aggressively protected, and, finally, that no one individual or particular group is to be victimized for the benefit of another.
In short, such theories do not "embrace the whole community of life as the relevant moral community" Rasmussen , Not only do these traditional philosophical underpinnings of the Western worldview fail to include members of the total human community, these approaches also fail to acknowledge the significance of life in the non-human sphere. It is also important to note that environmental justice advocates reject the Rawlsian understanding of justice as "fairness". In acknowledging the reality of social, economic and moral inequity, Rawls argued that these inequities must be based upon the condition of benefit to the least advantaged.
Furthermore, for environmental justice proponents, "justice is justice as distribution, recognition, and participation, linked in ways that address the wellbeing of the whole community of life in a given locale" Rasmussen, Part of the uniqueness of the environmental justice movement is the focus on injustice as a collective experience. Consequently, those in the movement strive for the actual pursuit, promotion, and establishment of better living conditions in the midst of collective entities, both human and non-human.
As such, at its very core the environmental justice movement is transformational and strives to empower collective victims of environmental injustice with the capacity for self-provision, self-organization, and self-governance Rasmussen, In addition and as previously indicated, there is an important distinction to be made between environmentalism and the environmental justice movement. While environmentalism is concerned with environmental injustice and the pursuit of justice, it is primarily concerned with the abuse of the environment by a hierarchical model which places humanity at the top with the result being the abuse of nature.
On the other hand, environmental justice advocates are more concerned with what is termed "social ecology" or "human welfare ecology. The efforts of the environmental justice movement go beyond those of the environmentalism movement. Environmental justice advocates contend that instances of environmental injustice are not simply arbitrary realities which occur in varying contexts. Rather, instances of environmental injustice are the outcome of an institutional oppression and isolation which have set up an inevitable framework of the powerful oppressing the powerless.
The victims, through a significant occurrence of historical and social realities, have been cut off from the power required even to challenge the causes of environmental injustice. In a very real sense, the environmental justice movement represents another dimension of social liberation, which attempts to protect victims from institutional and systemic oppression. However, the task of the environmental justice movement should not be understood only in terms of the negative.
The environmental justice movement also understands environmental injustice as part of a history of oppression and contends that profound historical realities predating the contemporary context of human existence in the Western world lie at the root of environmental injustice. Advocates of environmental justice contend that the lack of power on the part of the victims of environmental injustice have a direct relationship of continuity with events emerging from the recent civil rights issues, to the civil war, and even trace the root cause of the systemic lack of power by certain groups to the impact of European-based realities which continue to shape the modern context of environmental injustice.
Environmental justice proponents focus upon what is termed "the four interlocking C's" which have led to the exploitation of particular groups of people. These "C's" are conquest, colonization, commerce, and Christian implantation. The call for environmental justice focuses on both environmental and ecological economics, which are reflected respectively in the work of environmental economics advocates such as Herman Daly, John Kenneth Galbraith and Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, and ecological economics advocates such as Rebecca Pates and John Hagan. While the environmental justice movement is primarily concerned with issues related to the United States, any consideration of the movement must acknowledge the contributions of these individuals and others and their work regarding global considerations since many of the issues with which the environmental justice movement is concerned are also contained within movements outside the United States dialogue and debate.
The environmental justice movement originated with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of and of Title VI, which prohibited the use of federal funds to discriminate on the basis of race, color and national origin. The movement is also related to the work of Dr. This lawsuit, titled Bean v. Southwestern Waste Management Inc, constituted the first civil rights suit challenging the siting of a waste facility. The report was the first national study exposing the relationship between waste facility location and race. This particular work constituted the first textbook on environmental justice.
The United States environmental justice movement progressed onto the global stage in when environmental justice delegates participated in the 4 th World Conference on Women in Beijing. The movement emerged from an increased awareness of the disproportionately high impacts of environmental pollution on economically and politically disadvantaged communities.
It addresses issues such as social, economic and political marginalization of minorities and low income populations, and is also concerned with the perceived increase of pollution not only in neighborhoods and communities, but also in the workplace. There is no specific founding point for the environmental justice movement, but it was largely created through the fusion of two other movements — the economic analysis of the anti-toxics movement and the racial critique of the Civil Rights movement — and the over-arching perspective of a third — faith. African Americans did not significantly challenge the environmental problems adversely affecting their communities prior to the call for environmental justice.
Until that time African American resistance was largely limited to concern with local issues and generally was concerned with the individualistic nature of the African American struggle for equality. The environmental justice movement is credited with having begun in Warren County, North Carolina. In this locale residents demonstrated against a landfill which would be placed in their county. The reaction of the citizens concerning the issue reflected the merging of civil rights activists and environmentalists. Representatives from these two groups are alleged to have laid down in front of trucks transferring large amounts of PCB-contaminated soil into the largely African American populated area of Warren County.
While the Warren County demonstrations were unsuccessful, they did achieve the result of bringing a renewed focus to the issue of the disproportionately high impact of environmental pollution upon minority communities such as Warren County. Ultimately, this event also placed environmental justice concerns onto the political agenda.
In , a National Law Journal report alleged that the Environmental Protection Agency EPA had discriminated in its enforcement of environmental protection law thereby supporting the observations of those among whom the movement originally emerged. The report indicated that federal fines were more lax for industries operating in communities of color. In addition, the report also contended that the cleanup of environmental disasters in communities of color were much slower than those carried out in the context of wealthier white communities.
Furthermore, the report indicated that standards for clean up in communities of color were not as well established or rigid as those applied in white communities. Environmental justice advocates argue that an intimate relationship exists between the trilogy of environmental racism, environmental discrimination, and environmental policymaking.
Environmental injustice and environmental racism have their roots in a politico-institutional context bent toward discrimination. Municipal, state, and federal regulations are, therefore, aimed at permitting, condoning and even promoting environmental racism. In addition, environmental justice proponents contend that governmental policy is also bent toward the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste disposal and also the establishing of polluting industries in those communities. Further, policy and legislation not only permit but also endorse the official sanctioning of life-threatening poisons and pollutants being located in communities of color.
Environmental justice advocates also contend that residents of victimized people groups are ostracized from access to political power and consequently have been excluded from service on decision-making boards and regulatory bodies, thereby subtly yet deliberately promoting environmental injustice and environmental racism. Each of these elements contributes to the existence and propagation of environmental injustice and environmental racism CER, 3.
Environmental justice proponents contend, "Experiences of environmental racism and injustice are not random, nor are they individual. On the one hand, environmental justice advocates concern themselves with environmental injustice as it happens to groups; and on the other hand, environmental justice advocates are also concerned with the systemic causes of environmental injustice Rasmussen, Some would contend that socio-economic class is the central issue, however. Bullard counters that while race and class are combined factors, race is still the predominant factor.
Environmental justice activists pronounce that race dominates policy decisions made by those in positions of power since the power arrangements of socio-economic institutions are out of balance. Bullard also advances that environmental justice is not a social program, nor is it an affirmative action program and also that ultimately the central concern of the movement is the implementation of justice. In addition, Bullard maintains that the consideration of race in the environmental justice movement, while constituting a portion of the problematic equation associated with environmental injustice is not the only concern of the movement.
We are just as much concerned with inequities in Appalachia, for example, where the whites are basically dumped on because of lack of economic and political clout and lack of having a voice to say 'no' and that's environmental injustice. We are trying to work with folks across the political spectrums; democrats, republicans, independents, on the reservations, in the barrios, in the ghettos, on the border and internationally to se what we address these issues in a comprehensive manner.
He couches his discussion concerning environmental justice in the context of the recognition that at the heart of the problem of environmental injustice is a racially divided nation in which extreme racial inequalities persist. The result of the National Law Journal report concluded that the EPA had discriminated in its enforcement of Environmental Protection Law Report, which was intended to remedy the reality of environmental racism in the United States.
These principles represent an initial rallying cry on behalf of those inhabitants, human and non-human, who are the victims of environmental injustice, and eventually established a context for a guide to action regarding governmental legislation. The First National People of Color Leadership Summit brought together hundreds of environmental justice activists representing both the national as well as the global stage. The objective of the conference was to advocate for local and regional environmental justice activism in the form of both regional and ethnic networks.
In Max Baucus, Democrat from Montana introduced the Environmental Justice Act of that addressed assertions that poor and minority areas are disproportionately affected by environmental pollution. Environmental injustice is said to exist when members of disadvantaged ethnic minority or other groups suffer disproportionately at the local, regional subnational , or national levels from environmental risks or hazards or from violations of fundamental human rights as a result of environmental factors. In addition, environmental injustice has occurred when an individual or group of individuals is denied access to environmental investments, benefits, and natural resources.
The study of environmental injustice has the responsibilities of examining the hierarchies of power that are inherent in any given socio-cultural context and the manner in which those hierarchies not only tolerate but also propagate environmental injustice against any number of disadvantaged people groups EIPS, 2.
One cause of environmental injustice is institutionalized racism. Institutionalized racism is defined as the practical reality of deliberately and intentionally targeting neighborhoods and communities comprised of a majority of people of low socio-economic status and of a collective group of individuals of color and is considered to be the natural outgrowth of racism. According to environmental justice proponents, this racism has become acculturated and engrained in contemporary social institutions, not the least of which is a governmental bureaucracy on the municipal, state, and federal levels which not only permits but reinforces the imposition of environmental injustice upon these groups.
Another factor leading to the reality of environmental injustice is the commoditization of land, water, energy and air. This has resulted in their being secured and protected for the benefit of those in power over those who lack power. Advocates of environmental justice remind that regardless of our status in life, we all exist collectively within the context of this biosphere. In addition, the unresponsive and unaccountable governmental policies and regulations which exist at all levels of government contribute to environmental racism and environmental injustice.
Reviewer's Choice
Government authorities are frequently unresponsive to community needs regarding environmental inequities due to the existence of an oppressive power structure. Furthermore, governmental availability to powerful corporations who exert power as an act of self-interest also poses problems. Consequently, the victims of environmental injustice find it difficult if not impossible to use governmental resources and power to advance their cause Rasmussen, 8.
Moreover, the lack of resources and power in affected communities is a major contributor to the presence of environmental racism. In addition to the previous obstacles is the common denominator of powerlessness on the part of the victimized on the basis of few financial resources to invest in the struggle for environmental justice and also the lack of power by the victims of environmental injustice. Specifically, the groups adversely affected by environmental inequities lack the capacity to function as an organized block representing their interests against those in the contest of authority and affluence Rasmussen, 8.
Finally, a piecemeal approach to regulation which allows loopholes and the consequent ongoing victimization of low-income populations of color contributes to the reality of environmental racism. The ongoing process of governmental regulation also poses a problem in combating environmental injustice and the implementation of environmental justice. The consequent gaps between pieces of legislation which are passed in an effort to combat environmental injustice frequently provide a context for the skirting the intent of this legislation Rasmussen, 8.
The Act established a foundation for United States environmental policy and required that "any major federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment" requires evaluation and public disclosure of potential environmental impact through the required Environmental Impact Statement EIS. The EIS required by NEPA applies broadly to such categories as highways and other forms of transit projects and programs, natural resource leasing and extraction, industrial farming and policies governing genetically modified crops, as well as large scale urban development projects NEPA NEPA was signed into law on January 1, The Act establishes national environmental policy and goals for the protection, maintenance, and enhancement of the environment and it provides a process for implementing these goals within the federal agencies.
In its annual report, CEQ noted that populations of low-income people of color were disproportionately exposed to significant environmental hazards. This recognition constitutes the earliest governmental report acknowledging the existence of what may be termed environmental inequality in the United States. Bullard's original study discovered that waste sites were not scattered on a random basis throughout the city of Houston, but that they were more likely to be located in African American neighborhoods and even more shockingly near schools.
Bullard's work was the first actual study to examine the causes of environmental racism. Bullard discovered a multiplicity of factors which led to the environmental inequality including housing discrimination, lack of zoning and racially and socio-economically insensitive decisions made by public officials over a period of fifty years. In , further documenting the realities of environmental discrimination, a congressionally authorized U.
General Accounting Office study uncovered that three out of four off-site, commercial hazardous waste landfills in the southeastern United States were located within predominately African American communities. His was the first major study of environmental racism linking hazardous facility locations with historical patterns of segregation in the South. In addition, Bullard's study was one of the first to explore the social and psychological impacts of environmental racism on local populations, as well as acknowledging the emerging environmental justice movement as a response from the communities against these increasingly documented environmental threats.
The Order directed federal agencies to develop environmental justice strategies to help federal agencies address disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental effects of their programs on minority and low-income populations. The order is also intended to promote nondiscrimination in federal programs that affect human health and the environment.
It aims to provide minority and low-income communities with access to public information and public participation in matters relating to human health and the environment. The Presidential Memorandum accompanying the Order underscores certain provisions of existing law that can help ensure that all communities and persons across the nation live in a safe and healthy environment. The Environmental Justice Act of introduced into the U. Legislature was also a sign of significant progress. In the EPA established the environmental justice bibliographic database. The environmental justice movement credits its momentum and effectiveness to the U.
Constitution and three significant pieces of legislation: Title VI ; ; and 42 U. Prior to the establishing of terms such as "environmental justice" or environmental racism", residents living in minority communities who believed they were the victims of unfair environmental policy brought fourteenth amendment actions before local municipalities seeking fair treatment.
City of Apopka , , discrimination in street paving, water distribution, and storm draining services was established. City of Delray Beach , it was established that there were violations of farm workers' civil rights by city officials. City of Arcadia , the court found discrimination in access to paved streets, parks, and the water supply. Davis , announced the rule that impermissible discrimination under the Fourteenth Amendment requires a showing of intent, not simply of disparate impact. Metropolitan Housing Development Co. Title VI, Civil Rights Act states, "no person in the United States shall on the grounds of race, color or national origin be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.
In addition to the two foregoing Acts, environmental justice advocates also use 42 U. Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any State or Territory or the District of Columbia, subjects, or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law U.
Jerry Fodor was one of the most important philosophers of mind of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Weaving it together Milada Broukal. Cambridge, UK ; New York: English for today Project director: Lois McIntosh [and others]. New York McGraw-Hill c Oxford University Press, c Macmillan Heinemann English Language Teaching, p Oxford University Press, English, Laura Monahon English.
Mastering advanced English language Sara Thorne. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire Palgrave Thoughtful Teachers, Toughtful Learners: Pearson Education Taiwan Ltd. Professional English in use. Addison Wesley Longman, c Focus on listening and speaking.