The SALSA Program has served as a model of interagency cooperation by breaking new ground in the approach to large scale interdisciplinary science with relatively limited resources. Exercise intensity and gender difference of 3 different salsa dancing conditions. Subjects performed 1 pre-testing session and 3 testing conditions. During the testing conditions all subjects performed 3 different kinds of salsa dance. Heart rate was assessed during each dance condition. The exercise intensity of the 3 salsa dancing conditions was moderate ranging from 3.
In addition, a significant main effect for each condition was found in all variables P salsa dancing conditions were moderate. Findings showed some significant differences in exercise intensity between males and females and within conditions. Salsa dancing could be useful in achieving a significant training effect in people who have a low level of fitness. From an Ecological Stoichiometry Perspective. Suaeda salsa community is a vegetation type in saline-alkali areas.
Weed invasion and colonization in S. The colonization of invaded weeds in S. Thus, we studied the ecological stoichiometric characteristics of soils and plants in a salt marsh to explain the high colonization possibility of invaded weeds in S. The minimum phosphorus content in plants was higher than 1 mg g-1, whereas the maximum nitrogen content in plants was less than 13 mg g These results imply that phosphorus was abundant, whereas nitrogen was deficient in the area.
The plants in the salt marsh may be limited by nitrogen. Given the relatively lower nitrogen contents in Cyperus glomeratus, Echinochloa crusgalli, and Aster subulatus than that in S. These weed species may colonize highly in S. Moreover, nitrogen fertilization might be effective to maintain S. The interactive effects of mercury and selenium on metabolic profiles, gene expression and antioxidant enzymes in halophyte Suaeda salsa. Suaeda salsa is the pioneer halophyte in the Yellow River Delta and was consumed as a popular vegetable.
Mercury has become a highly risky contaminant in the sediment of intertidal zones of the Yellow River Delta. In this work, we investigated the interactive effects of mercury and selenium in S. Overall, these results indicated osmotic and oxidative stresses, disturbed protein degradation and energy metabolism change in S. Additionally, the addition of selenium could induce both antagonistic and synergistic effects including alleviating protein degradation and aggravating osmotic stress caused by mercury.
High hydrostatic pressure inactivation of murine norovirus and human noroviruses on green onions and in salsa. In this study, high hydrostatic pressure HHP was evaluated as an intervention for human noroviruses HuNoVs in green onions and salsa. All three inactivation curves showed a linear relationship between log reduction of MNV-1 and time. The ATISS measurement drone, developed at the University of Applied Sciences Wildau, is an electrical powered motor glider with a maximum take-off weight of 25 kg including a payload capacity of 10 kg.
ATISS is equipped with an autopilot for autonomous flight patterns but under permanent pilot control from the ground. The aim was to integrate a system for digital terrain modelling. Instead of a laser scanner a new design concept was chosen based on two synchronized high resolution digital cameras, one in a fixed nadir orientation and the other in a oblique orientation. Thus from every object on the ground images from different view angles are taken. Special advantage in comparison to laser scanning is the fact, that instead of a cloud of points a surface including texture is generated and a high-end inertial orientation system can be omitted.
The first test flights show a ground resolution of 2 cm and height resolution of 3 cm, which underline the extraordinary capabilities of ATISS and the MACS measurement camera system. Effects of a salsa dance training on balance and strength performance in older adults. Deficits in static and particularly dynamic postural control and force production have frequently been associated with an increased risk of falling in older adults. Static postural control was measured during one-legged stance on a balance platform and dynamic postural control was obtained while walking on an instrumented walkway.
Leg extensor power was assessed during a countermovement jump on a force plate. Programme compliance was excellent with participants of the INT group completing A tendency towards an improvement in the selected measures of static postural control was observed in the INT group as compared to the CON group. Post hoc analyses revealed significant increases in stride velocity and length, and concomitant decreases in stride time. However, salsa dancing did not have significant effects on various measures of gait variability and leg extensor power.
Salsa proved to be a safe and feasible exercise programme for older adults accompanied with a high adherence rate. Age-related deficits in measures of static and particularly dynamic postural control can be mitigated by salsa dancing in older adults. Transcriptomic profiling of genes in matured dimorphic seeds of euhalophyte Suaeda salsa. Brown seeds are more salt tolerant, can germinate quickly and maintain the fitness of the species under high saline conditions.
Black seeds are less salt tolerant, may become part of the seed bank and germinate when soil salinity is reduced. Previous reports have mainly focused on the ecophysiological traits of seed germination and production under saline conditions in this species. However, there is no information available on the molecular characteristics of S. In the present study, a total of differentially expressed genes were obtained; and differentially expressed genes were annotated based on a sequence similarity search, utilizing five public databases by transcriptome analysis.
The different expression of these genes may be associated with embryo development, fatty acid, osmotic regulation substances and plant hormones in brown and black seeds. Compared to black seeds, most genes may relate to embryo development, and various genes that encode fatty acid desaturase and are involved in osmotic regulation substance synthesis or transport are upregulated in brown seeds. Upregulated genes involved in seed development and osmotic regulation substance accumulation may relate to bigger seed size and rapid seed germination in brown seeds, compared to black seeds.
The transcriptome dataset will serve as a valuable resource to further understand gene expression and functional genomics in S. Heavy metal contents and transfer capacities of Phragmites australis and Suaeda salsa in the Yellow River Delta, China. Plant samples including roots, stems and leaves of Phragmites australis and Suaeda salsa were collected in the short-term flooding and tidal flooding wetlands of the Yellow River Delta of China. Six heavy metals e. Our results showed that in the tidal flooding wetlands, the contents of As, Cr and Cd in roots of Phragmites australis and Suaeda salsa were higher than those in their stems and leaves.
Suaeda salsa showed higher contents of Pb and Zn in leaves than those in roots and stems, whereas lower levels of Pb and Zn were observed in Phragmites australis. In the short-term flooding wetlands, heavy metal contents exhibited a big difference between different tissues of Phragmites australis and Suaeda salsa , and both plant species showed higher levels of Pb and Zn in leaves. Suaeda salsa roots enriched more As and Cd, whereas higher enrichment levels were observed in Phragmites australis leaves, which indicated different transfer capacities of these two wetland plants.
The transfer factors for stems and leaves of Phragmites australis in the tidal flooding wetlands significantly differed from those in the short-term flooding wetlands, however, no significant differences in transfer factors for stems and leaves of Suaeda salsa were observed between these two types of wetlands. Homologous cloning, characterization and expression of a new halophyte phytochelatin synthase gene in Suaeda salsa.
The halophyte Suaeda salsa can grow in heavy metal-polluted areas along intertidal zones having high salinity. Since phytochelatins can eff ectively chelate heavy metals, it was hypothesized that S. A sequence analysis revealed that SsPCS consisted of 1 bp nucleotides, encoding a polypeptide of amino acids with one phytochelatin domain and one phytochelatin C domain. A similarity analysis suggested that SsPCS shared up to a There was a new kind of metal ion sensor motif in its C-terminal domain. The SsPCS transcript was more highly expressed in elongated and fibered roots and stems P [Isolation, identification and characterization of ACC deaminase-containing endophytic bacteria from halophyte Suaeda salsa ].
We Isolated and characterized 1-aminocyclopropanecarboxylate ACC deaminase-containing endophytic bacteria from halophyte Suaeda salsa to understand the interactions between endophytes and halophyte. ACC deaminase-containing endophytic bacteria were isolated from root, stalk and leaf of Suaeda salsa and were identified based on morphological, physiological-biochemical properties, API and 16S rRNA sequence analysis.
Isolates were evaluated for their ACC deaminase, antifungal, protease activity, siderophores and phytohormones, such as indoleacetic acid, gibberellic acid and abscisic acid production, as well as atmospheric nitrogen fixation and phosphate solubilization. All the strains possessed the phosphate-solubilizing ability and could produce siderophores and phytohormones more or less. None of them could fix atmospheric nitrogen or produce protease. Only strain SS12 showed antagonism against two phytopathogenic fungi viz Fusarium oxysporum f. ACC deaminase-containing endophytic bacteria of Pseudomonas sp.
Using euhalophytes to understand salt tolerance and to develop saline agriculture: Suaeda salsa as a promising model. Background As important components in saline agriculture, halophytes can help to provide food for a growing world population.
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In addition to being potential crops in their own right, halophytes are also potential sources of salt-resistance genes that might help plant breeders and molecular biologists increase the salt tolerance of conventional crop plants. One especially promising halophyte is Suaeda salsa , a euhalophytic herb that occurs both on inland saline soils and in the intertidal zone.
The species produces dimorphic seeds: Consequently, the species is useful for studying the mechanisms by which dimorphic seeds are adapted to saline environments. A series of S. The species is economically important because its fresh branches have high value as a vegetable, and its seed oil is edible and rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Because it can remove salts and heavy metals from saline soils, S. Scope Because of its economic and ecological value in saline agriculture, S.
In this review, the value of S. Its uses in the restoration of salinized or contaminated land and as a source of salt-resistance genes are also considered. Education, bilingualism, and cognitive trajectories: Education, country of origin, and language usage patterns were collected at the baseline assessment and used as predictors of longitudinal trajectories of cognition.
Parallel process mixed effects models were used to examine effects of education and language variables on baseline cognition and rate of cognitive decline. Mixed effects longitudinal models showed that education had strong effects on baseline global cognition and verbal memory but was not related to decline over up to 9 years of longitudinal follow-up. Differences in education effects between subgroups educated in Mexico and in the United States were minor. Monolingual-bilingual language usage was not related to cognitive decline, and bilinguals did not significantly differ from monolingual English speakers on baseline cognitive scores.
Hypotheses that higher education and bilingualism protect against late life cognitive decline were not supported and education effects on late-life cognitive trajectories did not substantially differ across U. As important components in saline agriculture, halophytes can help to provide food for a growing world population. Because of its economic and ecological value in saline agriculture, S.
For Permissions, please email: Applying the method of physical fractionation, distribution characteristics of soil organic carbon and its composition in Suaeda salsa wetland in the Yellow River delta were studied. The results showed that the heavy fraction organic carbon was the dominant component of soil organic carbon in the studied region. There was a significantly positive relationship between the content of heavy fraction organic carbon, particulate organic carbon and total soil organic carbon.
The ranges of soil light fraction organic carbon ratio and content were 0. Leprosy is endemic in many countries and results in activity limitations. There is a need for assessment tools to guide professionals in their evaluation and choice of intervention in order to improve conditions for leprosy-affected people. Specificity, sensitivity and accuracy were calculated. There was a good correlation 0. Sensitivity, specificity and accuracy were calculated with acceptable results. SALSA -am is considered a useful questionnaire for determining activity limitations in persons affected by leprosy, and showed good correlation with DASH-am.
The concurrent validity was considered good. Integrated approach for confidence-enhanced quantitative analysis of herbal medicines, Cistanche salsa as a case. Although far away from perfect, it is practical to assess the quality of a given herbal medicine HM through simultaneous determination of a panel of components. Herein, we made an attempt to circumvent these obstacles by integrating several fit-for-purpose techniques, including online extraction OLE , serially coupled reversed phase LC-hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography RPLC-HILIC , tailored multiple reaction monitoring MRM , and relative response vs.
Confidence-enhanced quantitative analysis of Cistanche salsa Csa , a well-known psammophytic species and tonic herbal medicine, was conducted as a proof-of-concept. Optimum parameters for the minor components, at the meanwhile of inferior ones for the abundant ingredients, ensured the locations of all contents in the linear ranges. The unequivocal assignment of the captured signals was achieved by matching retention times, ion transitions, and more importantly, RRCECs between authentic compounds and suspect peaks.
Diverse validation assays demonstrated the newly developed method to be reliable. Particularly, the distribution of mannitol rather than galactitol was disclosed although these isomers showed identical retention time and ion transitions. The contents of 21 compounds-of-interest were definitively determined in Csa as well as two analogous species, and the quantitative patterns exerted great variations among not only different species but different Csa samples.
Seed heteromorphism observed in many halophytes is an adaptive phenomenon toward high salinity. However, the relationship between heteromorphic seed germination and germination-related hormones under salt stress remains elusive. To gain an insight into this relationship, the roles of gibberellins GAs and abscisic acid ABA in regulating germination of Suaeda salsa dimorphic brown and black seeds under salinity were elucidated by studying the kinetics of the two hormones during germination of the two seed types with or without salinity treatment.
Morphological analysis suggested that brown and black are in different development stage. The content of ABA was higher in dry brown than in black seeds, which gradually decreased after imbibition in water and salt solutions. Salt stress induced ABA accumulation in both germinating seed types, with higher induction effect on black than brown seeds.
Black seeds showed lower germination percentage than brown seeds under both water and salt stress, which might be attributed to their higher ABA sensitivity rather than the difference in ABA content between black and brown seeds. Bioactive GA4 and its biosynthetic precursors showed higher levels in brown than in black seeds, whereas deactivated GAs showed higher content in black than brown seeds in dry or in germinating water or salt solutions.
High salinity inhibited seed germination through decreasing the levels of GA4 in both seeds, and the inhibited effect of salt stress on GA4 level of black seeds was more profound than that of brown seeds. Taken together higher GA4 content, and lower ABA sensitivity contributed to the higher germination percentage of brown seeds than black seeds in water and salinity; increased ABA content and sensitivity, and decreased GA4 content by salinity were more profound in black than brown seeds, which contributed to lower germination of black seeds than brown seeds in salinity.
The development of a short questionnaire for screening of activity limitation and safety awareness SALSA in clients affected by leprosy or diabetes. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a method of measuring activity limitation in leprosy and diabetes. The resulting questionnaire should be quick and simple to use in basic clinical settings, not require any testing skills or equipment, be validated across a number of cultures in order to be widely applicable, be relevant for anyone with long-standing peripheral neuropathy and be sensitive to changes in clients' capabilities.
Because of impaired sensibility in hands or feet, persons affected by leprosy or diabetes are expected to be aware that many activities carry a risk of injury, particularly repetitive stress, excess pressure, friction or burns. They are expected to avoid these risky activities, or modify how they are carried out, in order to prevent injury.
An additional aim of the study was therefore to find ways of assessing how far clients were aware of safety issues and how much they limited their activities voluntarily because of safety concerns. Lists of activities of daily living relevant for the target populations were generated through individual interviews and focus group discussions. A questionnaire of items was compiled and administered to persons affected by leprosy and affected by diabetes in five countries in four continents.
Occupational therapists not otherwise involved in this study gave an independent assessment of the degree of activity limitation of respondents. The process of item selection from this database is presented step by step. The present set of 20 items is well represented by a single principal component and had a high scale reliability coefficient.
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On a item scale, one would expect a. Seasonal Variations of C: Variations of plant C: P stoichiometry could be affected by both some environmental fluctuations and plant physiological processes. However, the trade-off mechanism between them and their influencial factors were not understood completely.
In this study, C, N, P contents and their stoichiometry of S. The results showed that both plant organ and sampling times affected C, N, and P and stoichiometry of S. However, the slopes of C-N were found to be not significant within interspecific organs, but during the sampling times. These differences of plant N and C: N were related with the physiological demand for N in the specific life history stage.
In the supratidal habitat, no significant differences were found in the slopes of C-N, C-P, and N-P within interspecific organs.
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However, different slopes of C-N among the sampling times also indicated a self-regulation strategy for plant N and C: In contrast to the intertidal habitat, seasonal variations of P, C: P ratios within interspecific organs reflected the soil P characteristics in the supratidal habitat. Our results showed that the stoichiometric constraint strategy of plant S. Effect of frequency and waveform on inactivation of Escherichia coli O H7 and Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium in salsa by ohmic heating. The effect of frequency of alternating current during ohmic heating on electrode corrosion, heating rate, inactivation of food-borne pathogens, and quality of salsa was investigated.
The impact of waveform on heating rate was also investigated. Salsa was treated with various frequencies 60 Hz to 20 kHz and waveforms sine, square, and sawtooth at a constant electric field strength of Electrode corrosion did not occur when the frequency exceeded 1 kHz. The electrical conductivity of the sample increased with a rise in the frequency. At a frequency of 60 Hz, the square wave produced a lower heating rate than that of sine and sawtooth waves.
As the frequency increased, the treatment time required to reduce Escherichia coli O These results suggest that ohmic heating can be effectively used to pasteurize salsa and that the effect of inactivation is dependent on frequency and electrical conductivity rather than waveform.
The effects of Salsa dance on balance, gait, and fall risk in a sedentary patient with Alzheimer's dementia, multiple comorbidities, and recurrent falls. Recent studies have looked at the effects of dance on functional outcomes for persons with balance, gait, and cognitive impairments. The purpose of this report is to quantify the effects of Salsa dance therapy on function, balance, and fall risk in a sedentary older patient with multiple comorbidities.
The patient was an year-old woman with functional decline due to Alzheimer's dementia, late effects of a cerebral hemorrhagic aneurysm with right hemiparesis in the lower extremity, arthritis, and recurrent falls. Intervention consisted largely of Salsa dancing activities for 24 sessions over 12 weeks. The patient showed improvements in range of motion, strength, balance, functional mobility, gait distance, and speed.
This case describes the clinically meaningful effects of Salsa dance therapy as a primary intervention and its impact on functional recovery in a geriatric patient with multiple impairments. Assessment of heavy metals contamination in soil profiles of roadside Suaeda salsa wetlands in a Chinese delta. Soil samples were collected to a depth of 40cm in these five sampling sites to investigate the profile distributions and toxic risks of heavy metals.
The results showed that in each sampling site, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn have approximately constant concentrations along soil profiles and did not show high contamination compared with the values of probable effect levels PELs. All soils exhibited As and Ni contamination at all sampling sites compared with other heavy metals. Correlation analysis CA and principal components analysis PCA revealed that Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn might derive from the common sources, Cd might originate from another, while As might have more complex sources in this study area. Here, we present a case study in which high-resolution in-situ aircraft measurements are employed to analyse and quantify turbulence in the described region with parameters such as e.
This analysis is supported by idealized numerical simulations to determine involved processes for the generation of turbulence. Culturally appropriate, innovative strategies to increase physical activity PA in women of color are needed. This study examined whether participation in SALSA , an 8-week randomized, crossover pilot study to promote PA, led to improved psychosocial outcomes and whether these changes were associated with changes in PA over time. A research and modeling strategy is presented for development of distributed hydrologic models given by a combination of remotely sensed and ground based data.
In support of this strategy, two experiments Moonsoon'90 and Walnut Gulch'92 were conducted in a semiarid rangeland southeast of Tucson, Arizona, U. Results from the Moonsoon'90 experiment substantially advanced the understanding of the hydrologic and atmospheric fluxes in an arid environment and provided insight into the use of remote sensing data for hydrologic modeling. The Walnut Gulch'92 experiment addressed the seasonal hydrologic dynamics of the region and the potential of combined optical microwave remote sensing for hydrologic applications. SALSA -MEX will combine measurements and modeling to study hydrologic processes influenced by surrounding mountains, such as enhanced precipitation, snowmelt and recharge to ground water aquifers.
The results from these experiments, along with the extensive experimental data bases, should aid the research community in large scale modeling of mass and energy exchanges across the soil-plant-atmosphere interface. The storage time 0, 12 or 24 h of the condiments prior to HHP as well as the pH 3. This study demonstrates the dual efficacy of HHP to decontaminate fresh chile peppers destined for direct consumption and minimally process condiments possibly contaminated with raw peppers to enhance their microbiological safety. However, given the variable data quality and uneven data sampling associated with this type of model, it is essential that there be a means to calculate high-quality estimates of the path-dependent variance and covariance associated with the predicted travel times of ray paths through the model.
In this paper, we show a methodology for accomplishing this by exploiting the full model covariance matrix. With our approach the tomography matrix G which includes Tikhonov regularization terms is multiplied by its transpose GTG and written in a blocked sub-matrix fashion. We employ a distributed parallel solution paradigm that solves for GTG -1 by assigning blocks to individual processing nodes for matrix decomposition update and scaling operations. We first find the Cholesky decomposition of GTG which is subsequently inverted.
Next, we employ OOC matrix multiply methods to calculate the model covariance matrix from GTG -1 and an assumed data covariance matrix. Given the model covariance matrix we solve for the travel-time covariance associated with arbitrary ray-paths by integrating the model covariance along both ray paths. Setting the paths equal gives variance for that path. Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-program laboratory managed and operated by Sandia Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed Martin Corporation, for the U.
Please Pass the Ketchup: One of the core competencies in the IFT Education standards is for students to achieve competency in communications skills that is, oral and written communication, listening, interviewing, and so on. According to the IFT guidelines, by the time students graduate, they should not only be able to search for and condense information but also be…. Sin embargo, en todos los casos es necesario que el disco tenga un agujero en su centro. El radio de este agujero va desde los 3 a los 9 kpc. Presents a laboratory exercise on spicy food and body temperature that introduces the scientific method to introductory biology students.
Suggests that when students perform their own experiments which they have developed, it helps with their understanding of and confidence in doing science. Apresentam-se os resultados de um estudo espectral em raios-X de fontes do tipo Z. ScoX-1, 9, 7, CygX-2, 5 e 0. Trayectoria de los tornillos pediculares lumbares y sacros: In the United States, there is an alarming trend toward obesity and inactivity among children.
Minorities and economically disadvantaged children are at an even higher risk. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention one in two Latino children will become diabetic. As a result, there is a dire need for tailored intervention…. We determined if the Bruch's membrane opening BMO location changes over time in healthy eyes and eyes with progressing glaucoma, and validated an automated segmentation algorithm for identifying the BMO in Cirrus high-definition coherence tomography HD-OCT images.
We followed 95 eyes 35 progressing glaucoma and 60 healthy for an average of 3. A stable group of 50 eyes had repeated tests over a short period. In each B-scan of the stable group, the BMO points were delineated manually and automatically to assess the reproducibility of both segmentation methods. Moreover, the BMO location variation over time was assessed longitudinally on the aligned images in 3D space point by point in x, y, and z directions. Mean visual field mean deviation at baseline of the progressing glaucoma group was Mixed-effects models revealed small nonsignificant changes in BMO location over time for all directions in healthy eyes the smallest P value was 0.
In the stable group, the overall intervisit-intraclass correlation coefficient ICC and coefficient of variation CV were Bruch's membrane opening location was stable in normal and progressing glaucoma eyes with follow-up between 3 and 4 years indicating that it can be used as reference point in monitoring glaucoma progression. The objective of this ground-based program is to study low stretch diffusion flames burning PMMA as the solid fuel to determine the relationship between buoyant low stretch burning in normal gravity and forced flow low stretch burning in microgravity.
The low stretch is generated in normal gravity by using the buoyant convection induced by burning the bottom of a large radius of curvature sample. Low stretch is also generated using the Combustion Tunnel drop tower rig 2. Lastly, an ISS glovebox investigation is being developed to study low stretch burning of PMMA spheres to obtain long duration testing needed to accurately assess the flammability and burning characteristics of the material in microgravity. A comparison of microgravity experiment results with normal gravity test results allows us to establish a direct link between a material's burning characteristics in normal gravity easily measured with its burning characteristics in extraterrestrial environments, including microgravity forced convective environments.
Theoretical predictions and recent experimental results indicate that it should be possible to understand a material's burning characteristics in the low stretch environment of spacecraft non-buoyant air movement induced by fans and crew disturbances by understanding its burning characteristics in an equivalent Earth-based low stretch environment induced by normal gravity buoyancy.
Similarly, Earth-based stretch environments can be made equivalent to those in Lunar- and Martian-surface stretch environments which would induce partial-gravity buoyancy. This Report from Other Journals surveys articles of interest to chemists that have been recently published in other science journals. The articles selected specifically relate to the theme of National Chemistry Week Structured self-reflection as a tool to enhance perceived performance and maintain effort in adult recreational salsa dancers.
The purpose of this study was to determine if the use of structured self-reflection in community dance classes would influence achievement goal orientations, levels of intrinsic motivation, or perceived dance performance. The Monsoon'90 Experiment conducted at the USDA-ARS Walnut Gulch Experimental Watershed in southeast Arizona was the start of a long arc of subsequent experiments and research that were larger, longer-term, more international, more interdisciplinary, and led to more direct integration of science for decision making and watershed management.
In this era, much of our research and science must be more directly relevant to decision-makers and natural resource managers as they increasingly require sophisticated levels of expert findings and scientific results e. Significant effort beyond focused, single disciplinary research is required conduct interdisciplinary science typical in large scale field experiments.
Even greater effort is required to effectively integrate our research across the physical and ecological sciences for direct use by policy and decision makers. This presentation will provide an overview of the evolution of this arc of experiments and long-term projects into a mature integrated science and decision making program. It will discuss the transition in project focus from science and research for understanding; through science for addressing a need; to integrated science and policy development.
At each stage the research conducted became more interdisciplinary, first across abiotic disciplines hydrology, remote sensing, atmospheric science , then by merging abiotic and biotic disciplines adding ecology and plant physiology , and finally a further integration of economic and social sciences with and policy and decision making for resource management.
Lessons learned from this experience will be reviewed with the intent providing guidance to ensure that the resulting research is socially and scientifically relevant and will not only result in cutting edge science but will also directly address the needs of policy makers and resource managers. The task of monitoring the Earth for nuclear explosions relies heavily on seismic data to detect, locate, and characterize suspected nuclear tests.
Path-dependent travel-time prediction uncertainties reflect the amount of seismic data that was used in tomography with very low values for paths represented by abundant data in the tomographic data set and very high values for paths through portions of the model that were poorly sampled by the tomography data set. The pattern of travel-time prediction uncertainty is a direct result of the off-diagonal terms of the model covariance matrix and underscores the importance of incorporating the full model covariance matrix in the determination of travel-time prediction uncertainty.
In addition, the computed pattern of uncertainty differs significantly from that of 1D distance-dependent travel-time uncertainties computed using traditional methods, which are only appropriate for use with travel times computed through 1D velocity models. For our starting model, we use a simplified two layer crustal model derived from Sufficient damping is used to reduce velocity adjustments so that ray path Describes an activity designed to comply with the National Science Education Standards that introduces the principles of buoyancy and density by using plastic soda bottles, ketchup packets, and other simple materials.
Laboratory activity is included. Eight Steps to Prevent Heart Disease. Portions served in restaurants are often more than anyone needs. Condiments such as ketchup , mayonnaise and soy sauce Restaurant meals You know what foods to feature in In both cases, women are culpable of disappointing the man and causing his suf- fering because they are unable to possess the qualities that define femininity within the masculine imaginary. During the nineteenth century, women were seen as biologically inferior to men, leading to their oppression in ali aspects of life.
The belief system in which women are understood as degraded forms of men creates a space in the masculine imaginary where the image of women is equated with an incomplete human form. Representations such as these constitute a system of oppression in that they justify the notion of male superiority and dominance over the inferior form that is the woman. Although Rimas was published over a century ago, the assumptions regarding gender in the text are still a part of our cultural knowledge.
In order to break down the sexist ideologies that these assumptions consti- tute, we must analyze the implications of the representations of women within literary texts. Cartas literarias a una mujer. Rimas, leyendas y narraciones. State U of New York P, Enders and Radcliff Women Writers and Subjectivity in Spain, U of California P, Desnudos, sin canoas ni hamacas, el problema central de la vida nambiquara era el alimento. El aeronauta Alberto Santos-Dumont fue inicialmente un defensor apasionado del internacionalismo del aeroplano.
Mejoran los aparatos, que aumentan en dimensiones y algunos son hechos de acero. Santos-Dumont se enorgullece que un aeroplano alcance la altura de 26, pies y se mantenga en el aire durante 24 horas y 12 minutos. Es el instrumento privilegiado de la movilidad: XXXV 1 13 Por meio do aeroplano, estamos hoje habilitados a viajar com velocidade superior a milhas por hora. Montanhas, florestas, rios e mares entravam o seu progresso.
Sus previsiones fueron acertadas: En tales historias, los nombres tienden a ser de aviadores norteamericanos y europeos. En las diferentes escalas, se repite la escena de la bienvenida: Quiere festejar, ser parte y testigo de la historia. Franco describe la entrada en Montevideo de "apoteosis monumental" En palabras de Franco y Ruiz de Alda: En Hanoi tuvo problemas: El ejemplo de Uruguay sigue el de Argentina, siempre a menor escala.
Meregalli Eran 52, kms. El relato de los tres tripulantes resume el dramatismo: XXXV a gritar. El ejemplo de Bonilla es ilustrativo al respecto. Viviendo en Monte- video, se inspira en los vuelos parisinos de Santos Dumont y nortea- mericanos de los hermanos Wright. El primer aparato que construye y prueba se llama "Uruguay I". Bonilla aprovechaba todos los momentos libres para reunir los accesorios necesarios: Lleva a cabo el primer vuelo nocturno en Uruguay y Enrique Delfino compone el tango-milonga "Bonilla" en su homenaje.
Era una figura localmente muy conocida cuando en se accidenta y abandona los vuelos. De Palos al Plata. Jorge Newbery, el conquistador del espado. Sacadura Cabral, homem e aviador. O que eu vi. Tribunal de Contas do Estado da Guanabara, La victoria de las alas: First, it recapitulates and borrows from nearly all literatures of its own time. Second, it reworks these literatures into something entirely new that strikes even contemporary readers as remarkably modern. Third, the resulting novel is a nearly omnipresent subtext in the canon of Spanish if not world literature from on.
In each novel, literature allows for the protagonist's posterity, offers him or her a necessary escape from "real" life, provides a model for behavior, and inspires serious discussions of literary theory and criticism. Before embarking upon this argument, a few caveats and clari- fications may be necessary. XXXV far-reaching influence, uses the figure of Don Quixote as a springboard for the development of her own character.
The telephone rings and a man's voice informs her that she has scheduled an interview at that time. Throughout, the narrator simply calis this man "el hombre de negro" or "el hombre vestido de negro. All the while a storm rages outside. In fact, at various moments through the night, the narra- tor mentions several works by Cervantes including La Gitanilla 37, , , the Entremeses [66 , and the Quixote itself Among the many works that interest her, Martin Gaite professes a great admiration for the Quixote.
XXXV olvidar" "Charlar" As we will see, her metaphor between listening and reading is particularly poignant because of the strong association in El cuarto between speaking and writing.
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Don Quixote considers participating in the literature of chivalry as an author before he changes his mind and sets out to live the life of a character instead. I, 2, 42 His thoughts tell us that Don Quixote, having only recently assumed such a moniker, is already quite conscious of the importance of his lasting reputation. He knows that the way in which he will be remem- bered depends on how a narrator tells his story. Of course, the irony lies in that the tone the real-world narrator of Don Quixote employs is far from the respectful and admiring one that Don Quixote imagines Johnson Their conversation further clarifies the importance that Don Quixote attributes to literature in creating his legacy, as the protagonist expresses deep concern about his reputa- tion.
II, 3, Don Quixote's reputation as a knight is of supreme importance to him. In these concerns, as in his fan- tasized narration of his first sally, Don Quixote shows himself to be extremely conscious of the weight of the written word. As we readers can see, literature does in fact solidify the character's reputation as it has for the fictional and historical knights he admires.
Don Quixote would likely be dismayed to know that his reputation as a madman, though it endears him to fictional and real readers alike, supersedes his legacy as a valiant knight. She must write these memories down in order to preserve them XXXV word carries the weight not just of her reputation, but of her own life experience.
That is, she worries that if she does not both speak about her memories and turn that conversation into hterature, she will lose the experiences themselves. Of the conversations with the man in black, Stephanie Sieburth notes, "C. Therefore, writing is the only way to save these memories from a death simultaneous to that of the author. As her visitor notes, "la conozco por lo que escribe. In fact, he knows her well enough from reading her publications to have become her ideal reader. He seems to intuit her need to commit her memories to paper, which, in the case of this particular magicai night, happens naturally as the two characters converse.
The danger of this phenomenon, of course, is that C. How exactly this process works is unclear. This phenomenon, difficult as it may be to explain rationally, also finds resonance in another Cervantine work: The second novella is the transcript of the conversation, which regards the life stories of the animais and a debate of theoretical literary questions.
What we do know is that C. These memories depict C. She is yet another example of characters for whom, in the words of CarroU B. She and Don Quixote both use literature as an escape from their real lives. In examining this phenomenon it is necessary to ask 1 from what does the protagonist need an outlet? Throughout nearly all of Don Quixote, the protagonist confronts the material world around him in terms of escapist literary models. He seems to use diversionary literature to distract bis attention from his biand day-to-day existence, if not for a deeper darker reason.
The narrator is able to sum up Don Quixote's pre-sally life in just a few Unes.
In short, "His lifestyle, described on the memorable opening page, conforms to that of a familiar type, associated with threadbare frugality, hunting, the relies of honour- able ancestry, parochial seclusion" Glose 1. Due to his overwhelming interest in books, Don Quixote buys "todos cuantos pudo haber dellos" I, 1, Don Quixote 's relationship with literature diverges, for example, from that of Don Diego de Miranda, who exhibits a life in perfect accord with the established norms of his social class and position II, Don Diego has a wife and children and spends the bulk of his time hunting and fishing, not reading.
He also has a library, but he keeps his books strictly arranged according to language and theme, and doesn't spend excessive amounts of time or money on them. Of particular note, the books of chivalry that so occupy Don Quixote's time and mind have not yet, Don Diego states, "entrado por los umbrales de mis puertas" II, 16, In stark contrast to Don Diego 's mesura, Don Quixote is so taken by his books of chivalry that he sells off most of his possessions in order to feed his addiction, and ultimately decides to imitate their model.
Several hundred years later, C. Her social deviancy lies in her rejection of the image of the orderly and restrained woman prometed by the official doctrine. Reading or re-reading Don Quixote in light of the politicai and cultural climate of El cuarto illuminates possible reasons behind Don Quixote's literary obsession.
These assertions all hold up well when we examine the text of El cuarto. Of all that C. From her delight in disorder, we gather that C. However, because she lives within the dictatorship for the majority of her life, her rebellion must be within closed doors. Due to her surroundings, C. She thinks about her potential escape only "a solas y a escondidas," and explains to her visitor that books are akin to traveling because they allow her to lea ve the unwanted and uninteresting behind Thus, she manages to set US a dual existence, secretly maintaining what Sieburth calis the "reading, escape, madness" of the Republic within Franco's imposed "activity, sanity" In fact, like Don Quixote, C.
XXXV refugio," like the back room itself, protection from such unpleasant- ness as "el frio" and "los bombardeos" At various moments in her life, C. Her friend needed literature more than she, because "lo pasaba peor" , an observation that demonstrates that literature was indeed a response to and salve for suffering. In him, her secret and imaginary love life seems to be taking on a solid form, perhaps suggesting that with the transition to democracy in full swing, she can finally begin to live an enjoyable and fulfilling life. Alternatively, perhaps he is simply another imaginary lover like those of her girlhood.
He is simultaneously a role model for escapism and a national symbol: They have fulfilled Cs fantasy, have escaped their reali- ties according to their "alto ideal" and because of "locura noble. The figures whose paths she does follow come from a variety of other genres. This trait has been well documented with regards to Don Quixote. In short, he builds his entire plan upon the scaffolding established by chivalric literature.
Don Quixote also resists doing anything that he has not already read about in his books. During the famous incident with the windmills, Don Quixote tells Sancho that he does not complain about his pain because "no es dado a los caballeros andantes quejarse de herida alguna, aunque se le salgan las tripas por ella," a rule that Sancho hopes does not apply to squires as well I, 8, These few examples are representative of the constant effort by Don Quixote to keep his behavior in line with that of the fictional knights after whom his entire plan is modeled.
When her visitor hands C. As noted by Sieburth, the novelas rosa are the most present of named intertexts. This genre is effective in C. The novelas rosa also provide particularly effective literary models because they follow set patterns. On the night nar- rated in El cuarto, the bet C. If chivalric literature is all about fighting and romance, novelas rosa are all about passion and physical attraction. For instance, shortly after the man in black arrives, he asks whether C.
Suddenly, the narrator jumps to the text of a romance novel: Unlike Don Quixote, C. Further, not only does C. The literature that inhabits C. She also decorares her room based on what she sees in the same magazine. As an adult, C. Along with magazines, films present paradigms of behavior for C. In fact, the young C. In another cinematic imitation, C. First, having seen the films as a child she chooses to copy their slapstick humor. Then, having imitated Buster Keaton's movements consciously, years later she relates an accidental fall to her own imitations of the film star's planned but fictional falls.
In a third example of the influence of film, C. As Don Quixote 's interest in popular chivalric literature aligns him with characters in the novel, such as those in Palomeque's Inn I, 32 , as well as to contemporary readers of the Quixote, the mention of collecting movie stars' chromes builds a bridge between C. As a consequence, three "people" in El cuarto are placed on a similar playing field: Here she sees not herself, but the space around her in terms of movies. Meanwhile, other characters in El cuarto accept the imitation of literary figures, but opine that C.
For instance, Cs mother would also have liked to be allowed to "leer y jugar a juegos de chicos" and even "estudiar una carrera, como sus dos hermanos varones" Despite these dreams, however, Cs mother directs her daughter away from a literary or other Professional careen Her mother presents C. This book tells the story of a girl who makes a mistake in studying for a Professional careen She chooses the right path in the end, though, falling in love with her professor and marrying him instead of pursu- ing her own careen Ultimately her story is meant to model for C.
The Byzantine romances of the Early Modern era presented alternative, more productive and contem- porary models that Don Quixote could follow rather than aspiring to be an outdated knight errant.
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In practice, much of the novel's discussion about pastoral, Byzan- tine, and chivalric literature has less to do with madness and more to do with pressing themes of literary theory. Throughout both volumes of Don Quixote, the play on autho- rial voices allows the narrator to criticize or praise what the various "authors" and "translator" have included or omitted.
In a final example of the blurred line between Poetry and History, because of her belief in the importance of complexity, C. In a final literary critique, when C. Que no sepa si lo que cuenta lo ha vivido o no, que no lo sepa usted misma. The theoreti- cal discussion that ensues about the importance of a title reads much like a conversation Don Quixote and Sancho could have had along the road. Of course, all of C. In the end, although C. Whereas Don Quixote hopes to return to a social order based on chivalry, C. Unfortunately, in the end Don Quixote's defeat and death signal the impossibility of his dream, the victory of social pressure to conform over individual creativity and quirkiness.
Perhaps in protest, she writes quite a different end for C, who awakes in her apartment and maintains her belief that fantasy and chaos are superior to order and reality. XXXV Notes 1. Incidentally, Don Quixote himself is not the only character to do so. In the end, the protagonist decides to follow the life of a literary pastor, and finally, an exemplary Christian perhaps equally fictionalized. Don Quixote recreates other literary models as well, including pastoral, picaresque, and Byzantine romance See Johnson, Chapter 6. Of course, we should also remember that there are critics who argue that C.
Works Cited Baker, Edward. Don Quixote's Entertaining Books. Bulletin of the Cervantes Society of America Brown, Joan Lipman and Elaine M. Metafic- tion and the Actualization of Literary Theory. Revista de estudios literarios. Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. Don Quixote de la Mancha. Don Quixote - Miguel de Cervantes. Cam- bridge UP, The Quest for Modem Fiction. Inventing High and Low: Duke University Press, During this visit, Mester had the pleasure to interview the pioneer and the leading figure in the study of cultural studies in a Spanish context.
She specializes in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Spanish culture with a particular interest in popular culture and gender studies. Her recent publications include ed. Constructing Identity in Contem- porary Spain: The Struggle for Moder- nity.
Editorial Reviews
In this interview, she discusses her career trajectory, her current and future research projects, as well as some of her insights on Span- ish Cultural History. We are interested in learning more about your profes- sional trajectory. You started by focusing on the nineteenth-, later moving to twentieth-century Spanish literature, where you began studying the post-Franco era, and then went back to the s and '50s.
What specifically influenced these choices? I don't think that my trajectory was so tidy, actu- ally. The first work I published was about fiction of the late Franco period. At the time I started in the academy in the VOs, that was contemporary. I've been around for some time. Actually, I have always taught both the twentieth and nineteenth century. It's a bit hard to say why my research moved from the late Franco period to the nineteenth century. I think it was probably because of some wonderful work written on the nineteenth century by feminist critics in the States, Britain, and also Latin America, starting in the VOs and '80s.
I found this work very interesting and kept thinking about these ideas in relation to the Spanish novel. Perhaps it was unconscious but I think this is how I became interested in the nineteenth century. I was lucky enough to get a really nice research fellowship, which paid for me to be free from teaching for two years.
I was able to conduct historical research, doing archival work in Spain that I could have not done without having that amount of time. I think that this is what got me away from just doing textual studies. The minute that you get into archives, you get hooked and you realize that your material relates to ali the pubiic debates of the time and you start to understand its significance for contempo- rary readers. You need to be familiar with the pubiic debates going on at the time in the press, and the kind of books that were coming out; also, what kind of intellectual figures were read and the politi- cai theorists, for example, that were circulating in Spain at that time.
Then you notice a common fund of images that keeps surfacing in ali these different texts. It was a luxury to have two years off, which changed the way I was working. This time off was, in fact, to do a book on s cinema, which I haven't yet finished because I have obtained other awards for sub- sequent projects. Now I have a big backlog, which I have to clear.
Although I had the fellowship to write the book on s cinema, I spent most of the time researching and writing the book that became Gender and Modernization in the Spanish Realist Novel ' because I found such interesting stuff in the archives. The funding body, the Brit- ish Academy, was actually very nice when I confessed at the end, when I had to write my report, that I had used the time not only to research s cinema but also to complete the nineteenth-century book; they said they were delighted to have funded two books instead of one.
XXXV Tve always been interested in the early Franco period, particularly the '40s — less so the '50s. But we chose for the oral history project to look at the '50s too because we thought it would be good to have two decades during which there was massive change: So just doing the '40s was going to be less interesting. But I still feel incredibly moved by the politicai and economic hardship that people had to deal with in the s. Also, I feel that the way that early Francoism has been talked about in Spain often produces a simplified picture — although there has been some wonderful work done here by historians.
There tends to be a belief that there was a monolithic thing called Francoism which dominated ali culture produced at the time. I was interested in trying to pull out some of the cultural complexity and get away from the idea that a particular regime, no matter how brutal it is, can control everything that is going on.
Fm convinced that Spanish readers and spectators — Fm sure that was the case too in Latin America under dictatorship — were incredibly sophisticated because they had to learn to decode everything since they knew it was censored. Even if they were not sure that it was censored, they would often decode and read things into the text that perhaps were not there.
Whereas in a democratic country, people tend to take everything at face value and not question what they read and see. Also, there seems to be a shift in your work from a more gen- der-driven study to the recent focus on identity politics.
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Could you comment more about this? Gender carne into my work with the Gender and Modernization book, which I was researching in the mid '90s, and that was published in the year It's interesting now to think about how it happened that Gender Studies started off within a psychoanalytic framework, and I don't have an answer to that; it seems that it reflected what was going on at the time.
I found that I was getting less interested in the psychoanalytically- oriented criticism because it often operated in a historical vacuum, which really worries me. In this context, I should say that I am not too keen on the phrase "Cultural Studies" but I have become associ- ated with it because of the Cultural Studies book that I did with Helen Graham- — and I could have not done it without her as a historian. I prefer the term "Cultural History" because I believe historical context is really important and I feel that archival research, even when work- ing on the contemporary period, is hugely enriching though of course not ali projects need it.
It was looking at historical debates outside of the texts I was studying, and that also took me outside of the psycho- analytically-driven Feminist Criticism of the time. I came to feel that gender was part of a whole lot of other things that were going on. This was at least partly recognized when Feminist Studies broadened to become Gender Studies.
But it was necessary to start by looking at women because they had been ignored; it was only after having filled that gap that we could go back and look at the bigger picture. The essentialism involved here is problematic, though there is such a thing as a strategic use of essentialism, which can be valuable, as has been argued in the Social Sciences. That is, it can be strategically useful to argue that you are part of a bigger group, which has some kind of monolithic or tidy identity, because that allows you to put your claims forward in the politicai arena.
However, it needs recognizing that this is a strategic move, and it is not a move that I am personally interested in mak- ing. I am much more interested in a fluid concept of identity that is unstable and in every respect strategic, because in everyday life you adapt according to the particular circumstances and choose from the available repertoire of ways of behaving, depending on what posi- tion you are in at any given time. In this respect it is interesting to recount something that happened during the European-wide project "Europe: XXXV months into the project, the research team decided to abandon the word "identity" and to replace it with the word "identification.
I really like that term and it aiso helps to use it in the plural: I am interested in inter-subjectivity and how that operates at the levei of everyday life. I think this is a much broader arena than an originally psychoanalyticaliy-oriented feminist frame. You not only have a great time work- ing together as part of a research team, but it's intellectually very stimulating working with people coming from different countries. So the moral of the story is that networking leads to ali sorts of opportunities, which are unpredict- able, and one's work develops in unanticipated ways if one says "yes" to the opportunities that come from making new contacts.
Given that you are the pioneer of Spanish Cultural Studies, we are curious to know the direction of your current research in the field? But if you say you do Cultural History, people often think that you are a historian working for a History Department and that you are doing empirical work finding facts, rather than doing cultural readings. Whereas I would define Cultural Studies as being the analysis of culture as a system or process.
I don't think Cultural Stud- ies is defined by one's object of study, but by using a certain kind of methodology that sets particular cultural products in a wider cultural system. That is something that can be done with reference to any time period. In practice there are lots of different kinds of Cultural Studies — for example, there is sophisticated Cultural Studies work coming from Communication Studies and from the Social Sciences. If you go to Cultural Studies conferences, it is actually quite interest- ing to realize that the majority of people there come from the Social Sciences rather than Humanities.
A lot of that work will be on, let's say, how do multinational organizations function, using sophisticated theorizations from Communication Studies or Social Theory, but often without any history or any historical context. Some of that work, which was originally grounded in historical context at least in Brit- ish Cultural Studies , is what gave Cultural Studies its name. A lot of people think, also, that if you are doing Cultural Studies then you are only working on what they would consider trivial aspects of culture, like telenovelas or comics.
But you can do wonderful cultural analysis of canonical texts — that is what I was trying to do in my work on gen- der and modernization in the Spanish realist novel, for example. Yet, what comes to mind for a lot of people when you mention Cultural Studies is actually very limited. Fve become very interested in looking not only at cultural products, but also at what people do with them, at how culture gets enmeshed with everyday life.
There is now a whole body of theory about everyday life. I think Fve become interested in that because I want to look at the interface between cultural consump- tion and what else is going on in people's lives. We are writing two books on that project: We had to fight really hard to get a publishing contraer for what I thought was the most interesting project that I have been involved in during my careen We are ali co-authoring the book, so that we have equal status in the project. Co-authoring means that every chapter is assigned to two people to do the first draft and then everything cir- culares around the whole team and we ali input our suggestions.
XXXV not quick but it is productive. Then we are going to do a bigger book in Spanish. The second project is on Film Magazines, Fashion and Pho- tography, again in s and '50s Spain, which comes out of the previously-mentioned oral history project and is funded by the British Academy. We are looking at popular magazines. We are interested not only in the magazines as cultural products but also in how they influenced people's construction of a self-image by shaping tastes in fashion and photographic portraiture. There are two other book projects that Fve been commissioned to do that I did not choose but they were too good opportunities to turn down.
There are two main things we want to do. Firstly, we want to rethink the literary periodization. We've designed the chapters so that they move forward chronologically over- all, but in overlapping blocks of time so that there are continuities as well as breaks. The other main thing we want to do is to approximate to what books people have actually read in Spain, rather than stick to the usual list of authors which tends to get perpetuated from one history of literature to the next. It's a great opportunity because we can help to shape the discipline or at least make suggestions for new ways of conceptualizing it.
The books in this series are just 35, words long, something you can really carry in your pocket, and are intended for a wider public. This is also a great opportunity to help to shape the ways people think about Spanish literature, as well as getting more people to see how interest- ing Spain is culturally. Assuming that by "Spanish Cultural Studies" you mean here the cultural studies work that is done in Spain, I don't think that there is a criticai mass of work being done in Spain that allows one to talk about a "Spanish Cultural Studies. I know isolated people in Spain, who largely by going to international conferences and because they can read English, are doing really interesting things, but they often don't have support from other coUeagues to do this kind of work and it can affect their prospects of promotion.
It's also very hard to develop new ideas and ways of work- ing when young Spanish scholars who have been trained elsewhere are not coming back, because if you do your doctoral studies outside of Spain it is very hard to get a job in the Spanish university system which is very sad. To my knowledge, only one of the people who trained there got back into the Spanish system. But I don't think that in Spain, on the whole, they've learnt from the cultural theory that's being developed in Latin America — or by Latin Americans working in the US, like, for instance, Julio Ramos.
When it comes to Latin American Cultural Studies, a whole string of names could be mentioned It's curious that Latin American Studies is not very present in Spanish universities, though things are better than they were a few decades ago; it's quite surprising, I think. They come from different academic systems, but not everybody in Britain is going to conform to the model of what British cultural theory is known for, and the same goes for America and what's practiced in the American system.
As it is well known, British Cultural Studies came out of the work in the late '50s by Raymond Williams in particular. Ray- mond Williams has also been important for Latin American cultural theory — and I don't mean at ali by this to imply that British Cultural Studies is the origin of Latin American cultural theory, which in fact developed way before British Cultural Studies came on the scene. When Stuart Hall, a won- derful cultural theorist, became the Director of the Centre, as a black Jamaican he had a huge impact in Britain, making postcolonial studies a central focus of British cultural critique.
What's common to ali of these people working in Britain, starting in the late '50s and continu- ing since then, is that they are working within a Marxist tradition but breaking with the orthodox Marxist notion that culture is superstruc- ture, determined by an economic infrastructure. This notion supposes that culture is a result of other things, and that mass culture is merely a form of propaganda, a tool of capitalism in particular.
Both Ray- mond Williams and the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies took their inspiration from Gramsci, as an unorthodox Marxist theo- rist of culture. Although Gramsci's writings are fragmented, his very pragmatic ideas on hegemony and counter-hegemony are very useful. Gramsci saw culture as the process through which different groups negotiate their relations of power. And he saw both subaltern groups and dominant groups — to use his terminol- ogy — as having agency and being heterogeneous.
For Gramsci, there is a constant, mobile and interactive negotiation going on between these various groups. Culture is thus understood in a broad sense, including ali sorts of discourses and not just cultural production in the form of texts. Rather, culture is understood as the sum of the ways in which people are adjusting to or looking for some sort of status and position within a power system.
This interactive model of culture, as theorized by Gramsci, was the key influence on British Cultural Studies. It is often associated with a much less politicized reading than British Cul- tural Studies, looking at mass culture as the product of a consumerist society but not necessarily within the Marxist perspective that, in its Gramscian form, has been so important in Britain.
As you have described earlier, you have conducted a very interesting project, "An Oral History of Cinema-Going in s and Os Spain," and now you are writing a book on it. With respect to this project, could you please describe the empirical method you have used in this delicate survey? What factors influenced your methodo- logical choices? Our research is about audience response — including emo- tional and subjective factors like pleasure — rather than about empirical data.
We audio-recorded the interviews. I'm now sorry that we didn't videotape the interviews when we started the project in But we thought it would be intrusive to bring a video camera and that audio-recording would be better. We did video-tape just a few interviews, in the case of a number of people introduced to us by the Anarchist Cultural Foundation in Valencia which wanted to make its own video copies. As you know, Spaniards love talking and they were very happy to talk to us, it made them feel important to have someone listen to their memories.
In , new large research grants for the humanities were introduced in Britain for the first time, and we were lucky enough to get one of these awards. XXXV money paid the salaries of two research assistants on the ground, who located and interviewed the interviewees. We couldn't have done it without researchers based in Spain, because you need to build relationships with people — especially elderly people — and you can't expect to show up and start at precisely 11 o'clock that morning.
In addition to these two research assistants, we also have a team of researchers from Britain, Spain and the US, who are responsible for analyzing the interviews. We started off by getting the research assistants to develop a questionnaire for the interviews, and in the meantime I asked some anthropologist colleagues at the University of London including some foreign visiting scholars how they did things. The general consensus that emerged from these discussions was that unstructured interviews give you much richer data.
Whereas, if you have even a minimal list of questions, you are going to affect the answers and they will produce a certain type of an answer. So we scrapped the questionnaire. It was especially important to us to avoid skewing the interviewees' responses because our project is about memory-work and we are interested in how the memory pro- cess functions. We are not claiming to be reconstructing what it was really like for audiences at the time. We are asking people about their memories now, and memory is not reliable.
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