Restoration of Charles II, and St.
Update Required To play the media you will need to either update your browser to a recent version or update your Flash plugin. Switch chapters automatically Close. Close Translate this book. Close Read this book. Development of the Papacy from the Times of Constantine to those of Hildebrand. Persecution of Wicliffe by the Pope and the Hierarchy. The Translation of the Scriptures, or the English Bible. Protestantism and Imperialism; or, the Monk and the Monarch.
Efforts for the Redistribution of Ecclesiastical Property. Condition of Switzerland Prior to the Reformation. Dissolution of Conventual and Monastic Establishments. Nuremberg This chapter is founded on Notes made on the Spot by the Author in The Battle of Pavia and its Influence on Protestantism. Diet at Spires, , and League Against the Emperor. Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God".
According to canon law , the pope could not annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed. Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner. The combination of his "scruple of conscience" and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his Queen compelling.
In , the King summoned Parliament to deal with annulment, thus bringing together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take; it became known as the Reformation Parliament. There were common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts; [16] there were those who had been influenced by Lutheranism and were hostile to the theology of Rome; Thomas Cromwell was both.
Henry's chancellor, Thomas More , successor to Wolsey, also wanted reform: Cromwell was a lawyer and a member of Parliament—a Protestant who saw how Parliament could be used to advance the Royal Supremacy, which Henry wanted, and to further Protestant beliefs and practices Cromwell and his friends wanted. In the matter of the annulment, no progress seemed possible. Anne and Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope, but in October a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the archbishop to act against the Pope's prohibition. Henry thus resolved to bully the priests.
Having brought down his chancellor, Cardinal Wolsey, Henry VIII finally resolved to charge the whole English clergy with praemunire to secure their agreement to his annulment. The Statute of Praemunire , which forbade obedience to the authority of the Pope or of any foreign rulers, enacted in , had been used against individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings.
The clergy wanted the payment spread over five years, but Henry refused. The convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether and demanded Henry fulfill certain guarantees before they would give him the money. Henry refused these conditions. He agreed only to the five-year period of payment and added five articles that specified that:. In Parliament, Bishop Fisher championed Catherine and the clergy; he had inserted into the first article the phrase " That same year, Parliament passed the Pardon to Clergy Act The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little.
In , Cromwell brought before Parliament the Supplication Against the Ordinaries , which listed nine grievances against the Church, including abuses of power and Convocation's independent legislative power. Finally, on 10 May, the King demanded of Convocation that the Church renounce all authority to make laws. On 15 May, the Submission of the Clergy was subscribed, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the Church so that it could no longer make canon law without royal licence—i.
Parliament subsequently passed this in and again in The day after this, More resigned as chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. Cromwell never became chancellor. His power came—and was lost—through his informal relations with Henry. Several acts of Parliament then followed. The Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates proposed that the clergy pay no more than 5 percent of their first year's revenue annates to Rome. This was initially controversial and required that Henry visit the House of Lords three times to browbeat the Commons.
The Act in Restraint of Appeals , drafted by Cromwell, apart from outlawing appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters, declared that. This realm of England is an Empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same, unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality, be bounden and owe to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience.
This declared England an independent country in every respect. English historian Geoffrey Elton called this act an "essential ingredient" of the "Tudor revolution" in that it expounded a theory of national sovereignty. Finally in , the Acts of Supremacy made Henry "supreme head in earth of the Church of England" and disregarded any "usage, custom, foreign laws, foreign authority [or] prescription". Meanwhile, having taken Anne to France on a pre-nuptial honeymoon, Henry married her in Westminster Abbey in January This was made easier by the death of Archbishop Warham, a strong opponent of an annulment.
Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer to succeed him as Archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required, going so far as to pronounce the judgment that Henry's marriage with Catherine was against the law of God on 23 May. Consequently, in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown.
The Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of one penny to the Pope. This Act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope. In case any of this should be resisted, Parliament passed the Treasons Act , which made it high treason punishable by death to deny Royal Supremacy.
The following year, Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation. Finally, in , Parliament passed the Act against the Pope's Authority , which removed the last part of papal authority still legal. This was Rome's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture. The break with Rome was not, by itself, a Reformation. English Catholicism was strong and popular in the early s, and while there were those who held Protestant sympathies, they would have remained a religious minority if political events had not intervened.
An earlier reform movement that anticipated some Protestant teachings but remained outside the religious mainstream was Lollardy.
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Derived from the writings of John Wycliffe , a 14th-century theologian and Bible translator, Lollardy stressed the primacy of Scripture and emphasised the preaching of the word over the sacrament of the altar , holding the latter to be but a memorial. Unable to gain access to the levers of power, the Lollards were much reduced in numbers and influence by the 15th century. They sometimes faced investigation and persecution and rarely produced new literature after Humanists downplayed the role of rites and ceremonies in achieving salvation and criticised the superstitious veneration of relics.
Erasmus and Colet emphasised a simple, personal piety and a return ad fontes , back to the sources of Christian faith—the scriptures as understood through textual and linguistic scholarship. Humanist scholarship provided arguments against papal primacy and support for the claim that popes had usurped powers that rightfully belonged to kings. In , Lorenzo Valla 's On the Donation of Constantine —which proved that one of the pillars of the papacy's temporal authority was a hoax—was published in London. Cromwell paid for an English translation of Marsiglio of Padua 's Defensor pacis in The conservative Stephen Gardiner used Marsiglio's theory of a unitary realm to defend the royal supremacy.
By the early s, the views of German reformer Martin Luther were known and disputed in England. In this view, only faith , itself a gift from God, can secure the grace of God. Justification by faith alone threatened the whole basis of the Roman Catholic penitential system with its doctrine of purgatory , prayer for the dead , indulgences , and the sacrificial character of the mass.
Not only did purgatory lack any biblical basis according to Protestants, but the clergy were accused of using fear of purgatory to make money from prayers and masses. Catholics countered that justification by faith alone was a "licence to sin". Protestant ideas were popular among some parts of the English population, especially among academics and merchants with connections to continental Europe. Printed abroad and smuggled into the country, the Tyndale Bible was the first English Bible to be mass produced; there were probably 16, copies in England by Tyndale's translation was highly influential, forming the basis of all later English translations.
Tyndale translated the Greek word charis as favour rather than grace to de-emphasize the role of grace-giving sacraments. His choice of love rather than charity to translate agape de-emphasized good works. When rendering the Greek verb metanoeite into English, Tyndale used repent rather than do penance.
The former word indicated an internal turning to God, while the latter translation supported the sacrament of confession.
As chancellor, Thomas More pursued an aggressive campaign against heresy. While Protestants were only a small portion of the population, the growing rift between the King and papacy gave Protestants a new sense of confidence. Heretical ideas were openly discussed, and militant iconoclasm was seen in Essex and Suffolk between and In order to promote and defend the Royal Supremacy, Henry VIII embraced the language of the continental Reformation and relied on men with Protestant sympathies, such as Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer, to carry out his religious program.
The King's personal religious views, however, remained largely traditional. Bernard writes that Henry's religious policies were purposely ambiguous in order to foster religious compromise. By , Henry VIII was using the language of reform openly—speaking of Rome's "vain and superfluous ceremonies" and blaming the papacy for numerous wars and heresies.
Cranmer also secretly married Osiander's niece. Cranmer and Henry felt obliged to seek assistance from Strasbourg and Basel , which brought him into contact with the more radical ideas associated with Huldrych Zwingli. In , a new Heresy Act ensured that no one could be punished for speaking against the pope and also made it more difficult to convict someone of heresy; however, sacramentarians and Anabaptists continued to be vigorously persecuted. In January , the King made Cromwell his vicegerent in spirituals.
Effectively the King's vicar general , Cromwell's authority was greater than that of bishops. Even the Archbishop of Canterbury answered to Cromwell. Cromwell's programme, assisted by Anne Boleyn's influence over episcopal appointments, was not merely against the clergy and the power of Rome.
He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to bring together lay in negotiations with the German Lutheran princes of the Schmalkaldic League. The negotiations did not lead to an alliance, but it brought Lutheran ideas to England. In , Convocation adopted the first doctrinal statement for the Church of England, the Ten Articles. This was followed by the Bishops' Book in These established a semi-Lutheran doctrine for the church.
Justification by faith, qualified by an emphasis on good works following justification, was a core teaching. The traditional seven sacraments were reduced to three only— baptism , Eucharist and penance. Catholic teaching on praying to saints , purgatory and the use of images in worship was undermined. In August , the same month the Ten Articles were published, Cromwell issued a set of Royal Injunctions to the clergy. Minor feast days were changed into normal work days, including those celebrating a church's patron saint and most feasts during harvest time July through September.
The rationale was partly economic as too many holidays led to a loss of productivity and were "the occasion of vice and idleness". The clergy were also ordered to place Bibles in both English and Latin in every church for the people to read. The only complete vernacular version was the Coverdale Bible finished in and based on Tyndale's earlier work. It lacked royal approval, however. Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch in his study of The Later Reformation in England, — argues that after , "England's Reformation was characterized by its hatred of images, as Margaret Aston 's work on iconoclasm and iconophobia has repeatedly and eloquently demonstrated.
In September, Cromwell issued a second set of Royal Injunctions ordering the destruction of images to which pilgrimage offerings were made, the prohibition of lighting candles before images of saints, and the preaching of sermons against the veneration of images and relics. He once again instructed each parish to acquire an English Bible. For Cromwell and Cranmer, a step in the Protestant agenda was attacking monasticism , which was associated with the doctrine of purgatory.
Between and , 18 Carthusians were killed for doing the same. The Crown was also experiencing financial difficulties, and the wealth of the church, in contrast to its political weakness, made confiscation of church property both tempting and feasible. In , Cromwell initiated a visitation of the monasteries ostensibly to examine their character, but in fact, to value their assets with a view to expropriation. Leading reformers, led by Anne Boleyn, wanted to convert monasteries into "places of study and good letters, and to the continual relief of the poor", but this was not done.
Monks and nuns affected by closures were transferred to larger houses, and monks had the option of becoming secular clergy. The Royal Supremacy and the abolition of papal authority had not caused widespread unrest, but the attacks on monasteries and the abolition of saints' days and pilgrimages provoked violence. Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings. Suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places.
The Lincolnshire Rising occurred in October and culminated in a force of 40, rebels assembling at Lincoln.
1 Corinthians 15.1-4 ✝ Romans 4.4-5
They demanded an end to taxation during peacetime, the repeal of the statute of uses , an end to the suppression of monasteries, and that heresy be purged and heretics punished. Henry refused to negotiate, and the revolt collapsed as the nervous gentry convinced the common people to disperse. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter. The revolt began in October at Yorkshire and spread to the other northern counties. Around 50, strong, the rebels under Robert Aske 's leadership restored 16 of the 26 northern monasteries that had been dissolved.
Due to the size of the rebellion, the King was persuaded to negotiate. In December, the Duke of Norfolk offered the rebels a pardon and a parliament to consider their grievances. Aske then sent the rebels home. The promises made to them, however, were ignored by the King, and Norfolk was instructed to put the rebellion down.
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Forty-seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed, and from the Pilgrimage of Grace. In Southern England , smaller disturbances took place in Cornwall and Walsingham in The failure of the Pilgrimage of Grace only sped up the process of dissolution and may have convinced Henry VIII that all religious houses needed to be closed. In , the last monasteries were dissolved, wiping out an important element of traditional religion. Former nuns received smaller pensions and, as they were still bound by vows of chastity, forbidden to marry.
According to historian Peter Marshall , Henry's religious reforms were based on the principles of "unity, obedience and the refurbishment of ancient truth. Impatient Protestants took it upon themselves to further reform. Priests said mass in English rather than Latin and were marrying in violation of clerical celibacy. Not only were there divisions between traditionalists and reformers, but Protestants themselves were divided between establishment reformers who held Lutheran beliefs and radicals who held Anabaptist and Sacramentarian views.
Almost immediately, official religious policy began to drift in a conservative direction. A commission was swiftly created to seek out Anabaptists. Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November for denying the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. At the same time, he shared in the drafting of a proclamation ordering Anabaptists and Sacramentaries to get out of the country or face death. Discussion of the real presence except by those educated in the universities was forbidden, and priests who married were to be dismissed. Henry made his traditional preferences known during the Easter Triduum of , where he crept to the cross on Good Friday.
On 28 June Cromwell, Henry's longtime advisor and loyal servant, was executed. Different reasons were advanced: Many other arrests under the Act followed. In a display of religious impartiality, Thomas Abell , Richard Featherstone and Edward Powell —all Roman Catholics—were hanged and quartered while the Protestants burned. French diplomat Charles de Marillac wrote that Henry's religious policy was a "climax of evils" and that:. Yet the government will not have either the one or the other, but insists on their keeping what is commanded, which is so often altered that it is difficult to understand what it is.
Despite setbacks, Protestants managed to win some victories. Protestants could celebrate the growing access to vernacular scripture as most churches had Bibles by Pilgrimage from the Alps to the Tiber. Protestantism in Hungary and Transylvania: Wicliffe and His Times, or Advent of Protestantism: Rise and Establishment of Protestantism at Geneva: Rise and Establishment of Protestantism in Sweden and Denmark: From the Leipsic Disputation to the Diet at Worms, Christendom at the Opening of the Sixteenth Century: History of Protestantism in the Netherlands: Protestantism in Poland and Bohemia: History of Protestantism in Germany to the Leipsic Disputation, History of Protestantism in Switzerland From A.
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Church History – Jawbone Digital
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