In , he entered the convent of San Secondo della Congregazione di San Salvatore where he took the name Augustinus. Steuco soon showed a rare inclination towards classi- cal languages and devoted himself to rhetorical and philosophical stud- ies, without ever losing his focus on theology. He died in March while returning from Bologna where he attended the Council of Trent Lorenzo di Brindisi Rome: Sansoni, , 79—82; Charles B. Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, Atti del Con- vegno di studi tenutisi a Gubbio, aprile Much less abundant is, on the contrary, the bibliog- raphy on Steuco as innovative philologist; Maria T.

Centro Di Studi Umbri, The history of lit- erary attempts to rehabilitate the Constitutum Constantini includes a number of treatises and dialogues by theologians, scholars, and priests who shared a common tendency: For a more detailed analysis of the history of the debate see Giovanni Antonazzi, Lorenzo Valla e la polemica sulla donazione di Costantino, — He is accused of being among the detractors of Christianity, an accusation particularly harsh considering that Valla was appointed as scriptor under the papacy of Nicholas V and later as apostolic secre- tary under Callistus III.

His attempt to reestablish the authority of the document was resumed twenty years later by the Italian humanist Pietro Del Zochol, author of two liter- ary works on the topic — the Antidotum and the Apologia — both pub- lished in His work follows ferenda videtur audacia. Quemvis enim potius quam hunc ipsum Laurentium velim fuisse, a quo cum multa de elegantia Latinae linguae didic- erim, mihi ipse ignarus viderer nisi scirem quantum necessitudines omnes reipubli- cae charitas anteiret. Stellini di Udine Unlike Cortesi, Del Zochol limits the validity of the Constitutum to those territories over which the Church actually held political control.

The pope exerts his power through an emperor whose authority is legiti- mate and acceptable as long as it is subordinate to the Church. From this perspective, the author infers, Constantine should not be considered the first Christian emperor, but the first emperor since his power was legiti- mized through the sacrament of baptism.

At the Origins of an Enraged Rebuttal The socio-cultural milieu in which Steuco composed and published his Contra Vallam deeply influenced the drafting of the treatise. See Giovanni Antonazzi, Lorenzo Valla, Such a literary endeavor, aimed at proving the intrinsic omnipresence of Christian reli- gion throughout the centuries, was imposed by the threat of heretical deviations embodied by the Protestant Reformation.

As a man of the Church, Steuco reaffirms the centrality of Christianity just as the papacy found itself forced to convoke a council to contain the spread of Prot- estantism. The rhetorical vehemence employed by Steuco in his Contra Vallam is however not only aimed toward the philological rebuttal of De falso cred- ita et ementita, it also carries a number of venomous personal accusations against Valla caput maledicum, as Steuco often addresses him on account of his personal resentment against the Roman Curia.

Before moving to Pavia, in , a still young Valla had tried to find employment within the Roman Curia, but his rigorous defense of Quin- tilian over Cicero led Antonio Loschi and Poggio Bracciolini, two fervent ciceronian scholars and Papal secretaries at the time, to oppose his hir- ing. Facile igitur effectum est, ut nihil non acerbum in Ecclesiam statueret. It is difficult to ascertain why Steuco thought that the texts he worked on were older than the Latin document refuted by Valla. In , Roberto Cessi published a fundamental work on the Constitutum Constantini that reconstructed the history stemma codicum of the famous forgery.

Unfortunately, none of these texts have survived. According to the Italian scho- lar, Steuco worked on Vat. See Roberto Cessi, ed. La vita felice, , From A stemmed three more editions: Steuco not only found in the Greek canons a document that is older and thus more trustworthy than the Latin version, but also ascertained that the Latin version A was itself a translation of the Greek text.

Steuco acknowledges that the Latin text was manip- ulated, but he interprets these changes as the result of the frequent trans- lations — a true librorum communis calamitas, as he calls it, for texts as renown as that of the Constitutum — which have been conducted on the treatise itself. What truly differentiates the two treatises are the achievements that, in the span of a hundred years, the field of philology had reached thanks largely to the figure of Agnolo Poliziano also known by the Latin toponymic, Politianus.

Poliziano —94 revolutionized the criteria necessary for approaching a classical text; his new methodology not only consisted of a close and analytical reading of the text, but also included a comparative analysis of all the surviving manuscripts, integral and fragmentary alike. If the goal was to reconstruct a lost text, it behooved a scholar to compare as many lectiones as possible in order to follow an objective parameter of analysis. Ad postremum non est mihi disserendum cum eo super his, quae ait Romae esse fabulosa, quae pro veris habeantur, ut est de Biblia Hieronymi, quae sua ipsius manu credatur scripta.

Multaque praeterea pro- ponit ab opportunitate ac necessitate longe remota. At this point a question arises: The same work that Valla employed on A should be carried out on the older manuscripts too, in order to determine if the Constitutum is truly a forged text. Since the early nineteenth century, Valla has been referred to as the father of modern philology, and his observations on the diachronic evolution of the Latin language represented the sunrise of a new, glorious discipline.

Nonetheless, it is also important to note the his- torical element of his argument. As rightly noticed by Riccardo Fubini, Valla points out the legal impossibility of a Roman emperor donating all his power to the Church, and this is a much stronger attack against the authenticity of the Constitutum than any philological proof. Sed audacia tantum, ac temeritate, veluti vento pulsus, venit ad scribendum in favorem Alphonsi, apud quem exulabat, propterea quod in antiquis Imperatorum concessionibus habebatur Calabriam, Siciliamque esse sedis sancti Petri.

Steuco constantly affirms the authenticity of the Constitutum as his starting point, not as something to be demonstrated.


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In conclusion, the treatise Contra Vallam represents a fundamen- tal step in the history of modern philology. Building upon the works of Valla, Cor- tesi, and Del Zochol, Steuco offered to modern philology the first draft of a stemma codicum of the Constitutum. He believed that in a time in which the Catholic Church was seriously threatened by the quick spread of the Protestant Reformation, an incontrovertible demonstration that Valla was mistaken and that his Declamatio not reliable, was neces- sary. The unmasking of Valla would indeed have silenced Luther and his supporters.

Col- loquio sul Cristianesimo nel mondo antico, Macerata, 10—20 dicembre See Lorenzo Valla, Steuco deliberately adopted a contra personam approach over a more accurate and thorough exegesis that would help modern schol- ars cast light on the intricate and convoluted history of the Costitutum Constantini. He studied with R. Kaske and collaborated with J. Cross and has published and edited books and articles in the field of Old English studies.

He has also published articles in the fields of Middle English, Old French, and Old Norse-Icelandic and various other medi- eval languages and literatures. Robin is currently exploring hagiography as a vehicle for teaching prose narratives to learners of Old English; a nexus of cross-cultural contact between Anglo-Saxon readers and people of colour as far away as Persia, India, and Africa; and a labora- tory for defining magic, medicine, and religion. She is the author of The Aesthetics of Nostalgia: Her current work draws on recent trends in neuroscience and related fields to explore the role of materiality in Anglo-Saxon notions of subjectivity.

He completed his undergraduate studies at the University of Chicago. He is writing a dissertation on the missionary project of the Mal- lorcan lay theologian Ramon Llull, whose wide acceptance at Mediterra- nean courts and prolific literary production attest to the political support and unique spheres of influence available to medieval charismatic figures operating at the periphery of the institutional church. His research focuses on the intersection of chivalry, elite culture, and violence in late medieval Italy, with a spe- cific interest in the region of Tuscany and the city of Florence.

It distributes just a few thousand copies and has hardly any presence on the internet, just barely responding to its basic duty of bringing the pope's teaching to the general public. But "L'Osservatore" has passed through its dark moments before. And yet each time it has been able to make a comeback, even attaining a role of great prominence.

Curiously, it is the new director himself, Vian, who is the author of the only concise history of this newspaper written so far. It appeared in the "Dizionario storico del papato [Historical Dictionary of the Papacy]," edited by Philippe Levillain, published in Milan by Bompiani in , from pages , under the entry "L'Osservatore Romano. But before this, also on this page, is presented another text of extraordinary interest, also concerning "L'Osservatore Romano. The critical edition of the article can be found in G.

But even before this, in the Roman curia as deputy secretary of state, he was for many years the supervisor of "L'Osservatore Romano. This is his own highly personal account, right down to the subtle irony with which he addresses some of the newspaper's aspects. These aspects have changed little since then.

Of course, today there is no longer the "grandiose spectacle" of the page dedicated to Vatican events, which was stripped of its pomposity during Montini's pontificate. But the substance has remained the same. It is not for nothing that it is still considered "the pope's newspaper. But few guess how extremely difficult it is to produce "L'Osservatore Romano. And these were not the usual criticisms made by every reader against the papers he reads because apart from the freedom of the press there exists, to a much greater degree and never contested, the freedom of criticism of the press; only that while the latter usually remains silent, the former is strident.

These criticisms concerned the disproportion between the extraordinarily vast terrain that the newspaper should have covered — the terrain of Catholicism — and the relative scarcity of the news it published, and even, to tell the truth, its inability to give this proper expression and emphasis, not to mention its limited circulation. A lack of resources, I thought; and so it was, because unlike what people not excluding the Romans generally believe, ever since the Napoleonic upheaval the Vatican such an imposing word has been rather limited in its means.

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We could also add that since until today, or at least until the Conciliation [of ], it has been poor. Those who live by alms, even if these are alms for Saint Peter, cannot afford luxuries. In this sense the Vatican, with the dignity of a decayed nobility, has lived on meager resources lately, at times with a regal, somewhat threadbare cloak thrown over its honorable poverty. But this was not the real difficulty weighing upon "L'Osservatore Romano," because, in the end, the means were there, limited but sufficient: These were slight in comparison with the resources of the big newspapers, but of good quality, and in some ways excellent it should be enough to think of the people who staffed the editorial office and who, with the count Dalla Torre at the center, were its leaders at the time.

The difficulty, or better the difficulties, were less obvious but more real in other sectors. Think, for example, of the contrast between the issues to which the press usually dedicates its pages and columns, and the issues to which this newspaper offers its noble voice. One will notice immediately that "L'Osservatore" does not speak, for example, of theatre, sports, finance, fashion, judicial trials, cartoons, puzzles Even in terms of advertising, how many reasonable, very reasonable limitations there are!

And then, look at the news stories: A serious newspaper, a grave newspaper; who would ever read it on the tram or at the bar, who would ever strike up a discussion about it?


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A broadsheet of such great importance isn't lacking its eight-column titles and its impressively formatted pages, but the eye, searching hungrily to find out what has happened in the world, immediately begins scouring it, but then withdraws without giving any sign of its secret disappointment: Very well, we all know Latin, but we will read it more comfortably tonight, or tomorrow. And make no mistake, this is good Latin; these things can't be taken too lightly. And even when the headline page is not in Latin, one cannot always say that it provides enjoyable reading.

Edifying, yes; but no one blames the respectable newspaper if it cannot serve as entertainment, unlike the many other papers that make for amusement and relaxation.

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And we will say nothing of the page, as ostentatious as can be but full of the usual roundup of Vatican events, which may provide the pleasure of an incomparably grandiose spectacle, but not without a certain suspicion that one has seen all of this before. This "Osservatore Romano" — so important, so carefully crafted, so beloved — how can it be made into what it so much deserves to be and what we so much deserve to have, a "great newspaper"?

My own painful experience [while at the secretariat of state] taught me about other difficulties that the Vatican newspaper cannot avoid, and which all redound to its honor; it is a "newspaper of ideas. It does not simply set out to provide news; it intends to shape ideas. It is not enough for it to report events as they occur; it wants to comment on them to indicate how they should have happened, or not happened.

It is not in conversation with its readers only; it talks with the whole world, commenting, discussing, arguing. And for this aspect to arouse the reader's interest, enormous effort is needed on the part of the writer. It's not enough for him to use telephones, telegraphs, press releases, scissors, glue — he must use his judgment, his perspective; he must draw from his experience and moreover from his soul a word, his own word, living, new, brilliant. And above all, true. Here the journalist is an interpreter, a teacher, a guide, he is sometimes a poet and prophet. It's a difficult art.

Sublime, yes, but difficult. Try it if you want to find out. Every true journalist knows it; but here, at the "Osservatore," this art is even more delicate and demanding. Subjective resources are not enough; it's not enough to be witty, to be able to improvise and give words the spark of humor and intuition. Here one also needs respect for the wide-ranging, solemn system of doctrinal thought that is the Catholic mentality, always present, always demanding. Furthermore, this objectivity, this continual witness to the panorama of moral and religious truths in which everything should be situated, demands of the writer personal conviction, affection, and enthusiasm that are always lively, always vigilant, always at work.

This is why the art of the journalist is difficult, as has been said, at "L'Osservatore. Yes, it is the Vatican newspaper.

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And what does this mean? It is printed at the Vatican, and this confers prestige and freedom. But it is distributed in Italy and beyond, and this imposes limitations and concerns that are not insignificant. It is printed at the Vatican, and for that reason it is partly official and partly not. It is accountable, on the one hand, as a mouthpiece of the hierarchy; but on the other hand it is questionable, as the expression of those who write for it by their own authority. The distinction is clear, but the reality is delicate and complex, because the fringes of the sacred stole often pass beyond the official confines — or it is believed that they do.

"L'Osservatore Romano" Has a New Director. A Concise Reader's Manual

And so there arises at every step the question or the doubt over the weight that can be attributed to the news stories and articles of the illustrious and venerable newspaper. It is this uncertainty that creates, for some, a halo of reverence around the "Osservatore," and for others a sense of distrust; it commends the paper to the experts, the politicians, the scholars, the diplomats, the devout, but not to the crowd of ordinary readers.

So the difficulties are numerous and grave, and to a great extent they explain the struggle involved in producing and distributing this unique newspaper. But on closer examination, it is these very difficulties that impart to it so much dignity, authority, and power in its role as a regular publication. I experienced this myself during the sad and dramatic period of the last world war, when the Italian press was gagged through harsh censorship and stuffed with propaganda. What happened was like when all of the lights in a room are put out, except for one: And that was when trust in the Vatican newspaper was reawakened: Because what have been pointed out as difficulties could, with keen judgment and more effective effort, be considered unique features, and as such could impart to the newspaper a highly interesting originality.

No other newspaper can have such a wide range of observation; none other can have such rich sources of information; none other can have more important or varied subject matter; none other can express more authoritative guidance or play a more beneficial role of formation in truth and charity. It is not for nothing that, as is said, this is "the pope's newspaper.