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Real-time and embedded operating systems. Developing efficient design and inference methods for graphical models; in particular, frameworks for representing and solving complex decision problems under uncertainty. Learning from data for knowledge discovery and design of intelligent systems. The focus is on the use of probabilistic and statistical methods, as well as the use of logic-based methods for modeling complex, structured data.
Center for Embedded Software Systems, CISS, aims at strengthening industrial competence, research and education within the area of embedded software systems. The broader diffusion literature demonstrates that the motives for adoption differ, in general, according to time of adoption. A key determinant of the likely success in intervention development is the sophistication of change agents who work on behalf of a change agenc y.
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If a change agent correctly identifies which organizational leaders serve as sources of example, modeling, and advice for the leaders of other organizations in a societal sector, change agent time can be spent interacting with that subset of opinion leaders who will in turn affect other leaders in the course of their normal conversations with those peer-followers Rogers, In dissemination intervention, opinion leaders are especially effective when they are not asked to do too much. Asking opinion leaders to advocate, persuade, promote, or educate in ways they normally would not with their colleagues is asking them to risk their status within the system in question by formalizing what is an informal role Pereles et al.
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Opinion leaders are perceived as expert and trustworthy precisely because of their relative objectivity regarding innovations. Indeed, most of their judgments about innovations are negative. One implication of this tendency is that innovations perceived as radical are especially likely to be rejected by opinion leaders and, thus, are better targeted first to innovators who are sources of information for the opinion leaders in question.
In organizations, the choosers of innovations are often not users. What it is that organizational implementers do with innovations has been viewed as a dichotomy. Either they put the innovation into practice as is, or they change it in the belief that the new iteration will better fit their current workplace or client conditions. Adherents of program fidelity believe that working to insure that adopters make as few modifications as possible is key to retaining the success of the original program.
If the program is changed, how does one know if it is still effective? On the other hand, adherents of the program adaptation perspective counter that it is only through allowing adopters to change a program to suit their needs that the likelihood of sustainability is increased. If adopters do not feel ownership of the program, how can we insure its persistence in practice? There is great incentive, often well-intended, at the individual or single organizational level to customize, to partly adopt, and to combine innovation components from multiple sources to create a best fit in the user context.
For every adopting organization, truth be told, is unique von Hippel, Studies of the creation and implementation of interventions suggest that user involvement is positively related to adoption, implementation, and sustainability of change Douthwaite, Reinvention of innovations is more norm than exception, especially with wider availability of technology such that more and more adopters can participate in the creation of innovations themselves von Hippel, So while strict fidelity to an established process of implementation can make good sense in very complex behavioral interventions such as substance abuse treatment and recovery programs Fixsen et al.
This tendency is complicated by the fact that more than an innovation can be adapted during implementation. The organizational context, too, can change. And with process innovations, prior context can become indistinguishable from that which was new. If one only changes an adopted program and not the work environment—or visa versa—technical, delivery system, and performance criteria misalignments are more likely to characterize implementation. How practitioners interpret the purpose and promise of a new program will interact with how they choose to make accommodation for it in the workplace.
A key to successful implementation is to communicate why an innovation works, not just what it is. Guided adaptation through explicating both the underlying causal components of a program as well as examples for operationalizing those causal components in practice, and clarifying to implementers which aspects of a demonstrated program are central to its observed effect and which components are peripheral and more likely changeable without deleterious effects is a sensible approach to implementation that can recast adaptation as a property of implementation process and fidelity as a property of outcomes.
Practitioners should be encouraged to customize by making additions rather than just modifying an innovation. Adding local supplemental components is less likely to dilute effectiveness than is modification that includes the deletion of or alteration to core components Blakely et al. The pursuit of process adaptations to achieve positive outcomes is especially likely when both conceptual knowledge and examples are codified so that they are explicit rather than remaining tacit for subsequent implementers.
In organizations, resources in the form of staff time are often required for an innovation to be implemented. If senior management is not onboard, health care practitioners often cannot risk implementation Bradley et al. As it has increasingly been applied to agricultural, international development, public health, and educational interventions, classical diffusion of innovation theory is evolving into a science of dissemination. I have highlighted seven concepts from the diffusion literature that have been used or have the potential to be used to affect the rate at which social work interventions spread:.
Social work interventions range from innovations in human resource management to client counseling to technology deployment. The field exhibits a varied terrain for which narrow prescriptions for change may prove inadequate. Diffusion theory, with validated concepts that concern different aspects of personal, organizational, and social change, offers social work researchers a menu of concept combinations that may be quite adaptive to different social work innovations, different types of service providers and clients, and varied settings.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Res Soc Work Pract. Author manuscript; available in PMC Oct Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Correspondence may be addressed to James W. Box , Denver CO ; gro. The publisher's final edited version of this article is available at Res Soc Work Pract. See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract Few social science theories have a history of conceptual and empirical study as long as does the diffusion of innovations.
Gottlieb, and Guy S.
Defining Dissemination Science A worldwide science of dissemination is emerging, driven by new communication technologies, the interests of philanthropies and the needs of government agencies, and the persistent and growing applied problems that have been addressed but not solved by the dominant research paradigms in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and political science. The Classical Diffusion Paradigm Diffusion is the process through which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over-time among the members of a social system Rogers, Open in a separate window.
The innovation , and especially potential adopter perceptions of its attributes of relative advantage effectiveness and cost efficiency relative to alternatives , complexity how simple the innovation is to understand , compatibility the fit of the innovation to established ways of accomplishing the same goal , observability the extent to which outcomes can be seen , and trialability the extent to which the adopter must commit to full adoption ;. The social system , especially in terms of the structure of the system, its local informal opinion leaders , and potential adopter perception of social pressure to adopt;.
The individual adoption-process , a stage-ordered model of awareness, persuasion, decision, implementation, and continuation;. We assume that evidence matters in the decision making of potential adopters. Interventions of unknown effectiveness and of known ineffectiveness often spread while effective interventions do not.
Evidence is most important to only a subset of early adopters and is most often used by them to reject interventions. Emphasize other variables in the communication of innovations such as compatibility, cost, and simplicity. Inadequate and poorly performed formative evaluation is common as experts in the intervention topical domain engage in dissemination. Seek out and listen to representative potential adopters to learn wants, information sources, advice-seeking behaviors, and reactions to prototype interventions. While the creators of interventions are sometimes effective communicators, the opposite condition is much more common.
Enable access to the experts, but rely on others whom we know will elicit attention and information-seeking by potential adopters. Interventions are often shown as they are created and tested. Viewers often perceive uncertainty and complexity as a result. Publicize interventions only after clear results and the preparation of messages that elicit positive reactions from potential adopters.
Information is necessary and can be sufficient for adoption decisions about inconsequential innovations, but for consequential interventions that imply changes in organizational routines or individual behaviors, influence is typically required. Pair information resources with social influence in an overall dissemination strategy. Persons high in positional or formal authority may also be regarded as influential by others, but often this is not the case. Gather data about who among potential adopters is sought out for advice and intervene with them to propel dissemination.
We allow the first to adopt innovators to self-select into our dissemination efforts. The first to adopt often do so for counter-normative reasons and their low social status can become associated with an intervention. Learn the relational structure that ties together potential adopters so that influential members can be identified and recruited.
We fail to distinguish among change agents, authority figures, opinion leaders, and innovation champions. It is unusual for the same persons to effectively play multiple roles in dissemination into and within communities and complex organizations. Use formative evaluation to determine the functions that different persons are able to fulfill. Criteria of interest and ability make sense when effective implementation is the only objective. But spread relies on the perceptions by others of initial adopters. Consider which sites will positively influence other sites when selecting demonstration sites.
Potential adopters differ by clientele, setting, resources, etc. Communicate a cluster of evidence-based practices so that potential adopters can get closer to a best fit of intervention to organization prior to adaptation. Innovation Attributes An attribute is a perceived characteristic of an innovation. Intervention Clusters Rather than communicating and advocating adoption of a single intervention, a change organization can group interventions together.
Societal Sectors A societal sector is a collection of focal organizations operating in the same domain without respect to proximity, as identified by the similarity of their services, products, or functions, together with those organizations that critically influence the performance of the focal organizations. Reinforcing Contextual Conditions In the United States, arguably the greatest public health success has been the decrease in smoking of tobacco since the s. Opinion Leadership The diffusion of consequential innovations always has been understood to be a social process. Conclusion As it has increasingly been applied to agricultural, international development, public health, and educational interventions, classical diffusion of innovation theory is evolving into a science of dissemination.
I have highlighted seven concepts from the diffusion literature that have been used or have the potential to be used to affect the rate at which social work interventions spread: The perceptions of social work interventions can be shaped through formative evaluation assessments of attribute categories that in turn can be used to design and redesign interventions and communication messages about them. Effective interventions can be combined and communicated to potential adopters in delimited clusters to encourage choice and responsible adaptation.
Effective interventions can be demonstrated to heighten their visibility and observability, with both demonstration hosts and visitors sociometrically chosen to enhance diffusion. Potential adopters and implementers can be conceptualized interorganizationally as members of societal sectors , which leads to efficiencies in communication and the potential for broad spread.
The framing and timing of intervention efforts can be matched to reinforcing contextual conditions to increase the likelihood that potential adopters will perceive social work interventions as relevant and opportune. Opinion leaders among potential adopters can be identified and recruited to help in dissemination efforts by being encouraged to know about the interventions, talk about them with their colleagues, and know where to send followers for more information.
Interventions can be designed to invite productive process adaptations so that fidelity of outcomes is heightened, not lessened. References Agarwal R, Prasad J. The role of innovation characteristics and perceived voluntariness in the acceptance of information technologies. The diffusion of medical technology: Social network analysis and policy research. Argote L, Ingram P.
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Distributed, Embedded and Intelligent Systems (DEIS)
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Putting psychology theory into practice
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From theory to practice: Identifying authentic opinion leaders to improve care.
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Editorial Reviews
Singhal A, Dearing JW, editors. A journey with Ev Rogers. Communication between university innovators and potential users. A practical guide to understanding and fostering technological change. Up and down with ecology: Eagly A, Chaiken S. The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; Learning how and learning what: