Black Agenda Forum -- video of a March panel discussion with many key African American leaders, scholars, educators, community activists, and others -- the discussion focuses on challenges facing the African-American community and the nation, the question of whether America is in a "post-racial" era after the election of President Barack Obama, and the future of race relations in the U.
Historic Reversals, Accelerating Resegregation, and the Need for New Integration Strategies -- an important report about the increasing segregation and inequality of U. Boundary Crossing for Diversity, Equity and Achievement: Inter-District School Desegregation and Educational Opportunity -- a study that "provides an overview of the educational and social benefits of eight inter-district school desegregation programs — from Boston to East Palo Alto, CA -- that have enabled disadvantaged, Black and Latino students to cross school district boundary lines and attend far more affluent, predominantly White and privileged suburban public schools.
Despite the fact that these programs are out of sync with the current political framing of problems and solutions in the field of education, the research on these programs to date suggests that they are far more successful than recent choice and accountability policies at closing the achievement gaps and offering meaningful school choices. A Multiracial Society with Segregated Schools: Are We Losing the Dream? Race in American Public Schools: The Little Rock Nine: How Desegregation Changed Us: The central finding is that desegregation "fundamentally changed the people who lived through it.
African American Educator from Jena, LA Speaks Out -- a video interview with a former Principal and Assistant Superintendent in Jena, Louisiana, who is African American -- he was principal of an all-black high school in Jena before desgregation -- he speaks out here about past and present segregation and racism in schools -- you may either watch on video or just listen to the radio broadcast -- very informative!
Applied Research Center -- an organization working to "advance racial justice through research, advocacy and journalism. An Examination of Racial Discrimination in U. ERASE Racism -- an organization that "develops and promotes policies and initiatives to end the perpetuation of institutional racism in arenas such as public school education, housing, health care, and economic development. A Guide for African American Parents: Lies My Teacher Told Me: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism ; and more.
The Sounds of Silence: Talking Race in Music Education -- a article about the importance of creating an approach to music education that's anti-racist in its goals and practices. Breaking Down Barriers -- a report on a high school program in Michigan that successfully brought students together across racial and other social and cultural divisions. Race Bridges -- an organization that offers free lesson plans to promote interracial understanding.
National Alliance of Black School Educators NABSE -- an organization "dedicated to improving the educational experiences and accomplishments of African American youth through the development and use of instructional and motivational methods that increase levels of inspiration, attendance and overall achievement".
Engaging African American Males in Reading -- a great article by Alfred Tatum, with many useful insights and great teaching ideas and examples -- published in Educational Leadership in , and available here online. The Dynamics of Classroom Life in Schools Serving Low-Income African American Children -- a research report that details the characteristics and practices of effective teachers working with low-income African American children -- lots of valuable insight and information.
Black Students Are Not Culturally Biased Against Academic Achievement -- this study about African American students' attitudes toward school and academic achievement shows that where an anti-achievement attitude develops, it is "over time and is most likely to occur in schools where blacks are grossly underrepresented in the most challenging courses" -- i. Racial Bias in Testing -- an essay by Christopher Jencks about this troubling and important issue.
Race and Education -- a site with good programs and links with a particular focus on continued segregation in U. Supreme Court and School Diversity -- a radio program about two Supreme Court cases that call into question the efforts of many school districts to integrate their schools -- includes tape of the Supreme Court hearings on Dec.
The Unfinished Legacy of Brown v. Board of Education -- an excellent collection of articles about what the Brown case attempted to achieve and the extensive and complex work that remains. Board of Education, history of reaction to the decision, and where we are now with regard to its goals. Classroom Activities and Resources -- lesson plans and curricular guides for teaching about this important Supreme Court Case. An American Legacy -- a set of articles in Teaching Tolerance Magazine about this important Supreme Court case and related issues today -- includes good classroom instructional materials.
Board of Education case and where we are now on the issues the case addressed. The Promise Unfulfilled -- a special 5-part series that takes stock of the impact of the Brown v. Board of Education case -- raises important questions about current issues of race in education. In America's Classrooms Discussions about Race Remain Timely and Relevant -- an article about how some teachers teach about the Brown decision and issues of race and racism. America's Next Achievement Test: The Teaching Diverse Students Initiative -- a program designed to help educators address the education gap "by providing research-based resources for improving the teaching of racially and ethnically diverse students.
Uri Treisman's Merit Workshop Model -- an article about the important work and ideas of Uri Treisman, who has demonstrated how to improve teaching effectiveness when working with African American students who are not doing well in school -- he replaces remedial approaches with an honors program approach rooted in group collaboration and challenging problems in an environment of high expectations. Treisman and access some of his publications. Closing the Achievement Gap. The Algebra Project -- an exceptional math education program, now nationally recognized, created by Civil Rights activist and Harvard Ph.
Prep for Prep -- a successful program that demonstrates the fundamental power and value of high expectations and real opportunity in education. The AVID Program -- a program that "places academically average students in advanced classes and supports them for success there" -- it has been very successful as measured by college admission rates of program participants, most of whom are students from groups with a history of high dropout rates and underperformance in school. National Center for Accelerated Schools -- an approach to school reform based on the idea of providing students of limited resources with accelerated, rather than remedial, instruction -- accelerated schools use ideas from gifted and talented education to improve the education of students of limited resources, and it works!
James Comer, this nationally recognized program helps schools develop strong bonds with parents and community that translate into significant academic performance gains -- Dr. Comer started with one school in a poor neighborhood in New Haven, CT and has built a national model for school reform that works. Schools that Develop Children -- an excellent essay by Dr. James Comer about the value of a systemic and developmental approach to school reform -- the ideas presented here are the foundation of the Comer School Development Program, the success of which has demonstrated the value of these ideas.
Minority Student Achievement Network -- a national coalition of multiracial, urban-suburban school districts across the United States that works "to discover, develop and implement the means to ensure high academic achievement for students of color, specifically African American and Latino students. Success for All Foundation -- a "comprehensive and effective school-restructuring program for the education of our children in reading, writing, mathematics, and the social sciences" -- the program has substantial evidence of success.
Minority Students in Special and Gifted Education -- a book, available online, that presents research by the National Academy of Sciences documenting the disproportionately high number of minority students in special education and the disproportionately low number of minority students in gifted programs. Racial Inequity in Special Education -- a site with information about and selections from a new book about this issue by Gary Orfield and Daniel Losen. A Ghetto Within a Ghetto -- an article about the research of Gary Orfield and Daniel Losen documenting that African American children, especially males, are overrepresented in special education programs.
Addressing Over-Representation of African American Students in Special Education -- a recent research report that presents data documenting this problem and things educators and community members can do to address it. Using Call-and-Response to Facilitate Language Mastery and Literacy Acquisition Among African American Students -- an article about teaching language and literacy through a call and response communication style.
Writings on the "Ebonics" Issue -- published writings and public presentations by John Rickford, a professor of linguistics at Stanford University. Ebonics and Culturally Responsive Instruction: What Should Teachers Do? Power, Language, and the Education of African-American Children -- a number of chapters from the excellent book of this title, available online.
A Linguist Looks at the Ebonics Debate -- a thoughtful, well-reasoned discussion of this important issue. Ebonics -- materials and online discussion of Ebonics at the site of the Linguistic Society of America. Do You Speak American? Original Oakland Resolution on Ebonics -- the resolution passed by the Oakland Board of Education, and the supplemental policy statement by the Superintendent of Schools, concerning students with a background in African American Vernacular English.
This resolution became very controversial as many people misunderstood it to mean that educators would be teaching students to speak and write in African American Vernacular English or Ebonics. Comments on Ebonics -- email messages collected during the "Ebonics" controversy in spring from internet discussion lists for linguists, especially the American Dialect Society list and a list for linguistic anthropologists -- most represent the informed opinions of linguists about the variety of English known to them as African American Vernacular English, or Black Vernacular English, and its place in the schools and society.
African American Vernacular English -- some good materials and links. Nigger the word , A Brief History -- a good background, historical article about the n-word. The Meanings of a Word -- an excellent essay, by Gloria Naylor, that first appeared in the New York Times in , about the n-word and the significance of context in understanding its meaning and impact.
The "N-word" and the Racial Dynamics of Teaching -- a discussion in the Harvard Education Letter about the prevalence of the n-word in schools, and about how teachers should respond -- of particular significance is that white teachers report being less comfortable and less likely to address it than either African American or Latino teachers. Consigning the "N" Word to Personal History -- a radio essay by an African American young man at the time of the piece a first year student at Howard University who has decided not to use the n-word.
Communities Debate Use of the N-Word -- listen to a news radio segment about how a number of communities and city councils haver asked their citizens to voluntarily refrain from using the n-word. Discussing Race through Cora Unashamed -- a discussion of how teachers can teach about race, racism, and the n-word, using Langston Hughes' short story, Cora Unashamed -- includes good specific ideas for teaching about the n-word as well as suggested readings. Examining Language in Cora Unashamed -- another good presentation about how to engage students in a critically reflective analysis of langauge use in Langston Hughes' story, Cora Unashamed, including the n-word -- includes good additional readings and resources as well as assignments and teaching ideas for pre-reading preparation and post-reading reflection and analysis.
What's In a Name? Plenty, That's What -- a good essay about the "moral and ethical issues [the n-word] raises for all of us who want to be racially responsible, inclusive and well-intended in our use of language" -- includes discussion of Randall Kennedy's controversial book, Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word. New Word Order -- an essay about use of the n-word in popular culture. Major themes in the book are the topics of instruction and investigation.
A Teaching and Learning Discussion -- a self-reflective essay about one college professor's efforts to change what and how she teaches to be more truly multicultural and culturally responsive -- includes a good discussion of language issues that arise when doing this important work. Racial Conflict in School and Community of Jena, Louisiana -- a radio story about the racial tension and incidents in Jena, Louisiana that have led to six African American youth being charged and incarcerated.
Racial Bias in U. Dietary Guidelines, Part 1 -- a research-based discussion of guidelines that promote dairy consumption whan a majority of people of color are genetically lactose intolerant. News and Notes -- an excellent national radio program, no longer being broadcast, that explored important events and issues "from an African American perspective. Chickenbones -- a "journal for literary and artistic African-American themes" -- lots of interesting articles discussing history, racism, literature, and current events.
African Americans in Science -- an excellent site with extensive resources about African-Americans in science. Mathematicians of the African Diaspora -- important information and teaching resources. Women of the Movement Bios -- brief but effective biographies of women centrally involved in the Civil Rights Movement -- very useul for developing lesson plans and learning about the role of women in this important struggle. Books for Children -- a well organized list of good books about African American experience, people, and characters. Teaching about Africa K -- a page of resources created by the Stanford University library.
Webster Groves Writing Projec t -- a successful multicultural approach to the teaching of writing -- this program has been written about in a number of books and articles about effective use of culture in designing and delivering instruction. Voices from the Gaps -- a great website about "women writers of color" -- good bios and links. Just Think -- an interesting media production program for youth that teaches critical media literacy and other important skills.
ColorLines -- an excellent magazine about issues of race, ethnicity, and racism. Beyond Black and White -- a series of interviews with experts, academics, politicians, and activists about the current state of race relations in America. African American World -- a Public Broadcasting site with good historical and other information and resources. Education in Mississippi, -- a good radio segment about failed attempts to desegregate schools in Mississippi.
African American History The History Net -- an excellent African American history site, with primary documents, photos, biographies, and much more -- lots of great links and resources. The Souls of Black Folk -- W. Du Bois' classic and important book, published in Du Bois wrote in his introduction: This meaning is not without interest to you, Gentle Reader; for the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color-line. African American History -- another good site with teaching resources. Say Brother -- a long running public-affairs television program dedicated to the African American experience -- started in , the program has featured conversations and discussions with Julian Bond, Nikki Giovanni, Eartha Kitt, and other leaders within the African-American community.
African American History List -- links to many of the best African American history sites and museums. Digital Schomburg -- an online archive of manuscripts at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in NYC -- lots of good materials for classroom and other use. A Gateway to African American History -- a very useufl web portal with lots of links.
African American Women -- a collection of materials at Duke University, including letters and memoirs of 19th century slave women. Bringing the Civil Rights Movement into the Classroom -- an article about how one teacher teaches the Civil Rights Movement as an important and valuable act of resistance in U. Partners of the Heart -- a documentary that tells the little-known story of the collaboration between white surgeon, Alfred Blalock and his African American "assistant," Vivien Thomas. Blalock recognized Thomas' talents when Thomas came inquiring after a hospital janitor's job.
Thomas went on to invent many important procedures for open heart surgery, despite the fact that he did not have a medical degree and was rarely treated as an equal. Blalock came to treat Thomas with tremendous respect in the lab, but the two men were rarely treated as equals in the outside world. Over time, Thomas would go on to train two generations of the country's premier heart surgeons. In , more than three decades after Thomas' first inventions successes, Johns Hopkins University finally formally recognized his extraordinary achievements, awarding him an honorary doctorate.
Frontiers in Civil Rights: Board of Education case that finally brought down the "separate but equal" Jim Crow laws and apartheid of the U. Board of Education decision. Chronology on the History of Slavery and Racism -- website that provides a detailed history of the institutions of slavery and racism in the United States.
PBS Ask the Experts: Are We Ready for a Colorblind Society? National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAACP -- one of the nation's largest civil rights organizations -- its mission is to promote equality and eliminate prejudice among all people. Civil Rights in Mississippi Digital Archive -- online resources, including oral histories and manuscripts about the state's civil rights struggle.
African American History through the Arts -- articles and art -- from traditional to contemporary. African Odyssey -- links to indexes and curriculum-based resources for teaching about the arts and culture of Africa. Lest We Forget -- a digital history project by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, about the history of and struggle against slavery.
The Internet African American History Challenge -- questions, at different levels of difficulty, about African American history -- take the quizzes yourself and use them as teaching tools. African American History Site -- another good site with historical information. Today's Civil Right's Movement? Curriculum Guide -- information about a curricular guide put together by an organzation called Art Sanctuary. The Hip Hop Education Guidebook: Hip Hop Education -- an article about Martha Diaz and her efforts to combine hip hop and filmmaking to teach reading, writing, and more.
H2Ed -- the website of this innovative program and organization that "connects educators, social workers, parents, and youth to use Hip-Hop culture as an effective way to inform, educate, and activate youth" -- started by Marth Diaz and Tricia Wing -- soon they will have lesson plans and more at this website. The History of Hip Hop -- a brief and useful overview article.
Hip Hop History -- more good articles and links. A Hip Hop Bibliography -- a good list of books and articles. Conflict Honored, Jewels Kicked, and Hope Elevated -- an effective "literary" analysis of some hip-hop for use in the classroom. Urban Think Tank -- a site for the "body of thinkers in the hip hop community" -- interesting articles and links. Hip Hop Violin -- a radio segment about a pair of Julliard-trained, violin playing African American brothers who are making their own music. Exploring African Hip Hop -- a radio review of CD's by two African hip hop groups whose music "embodies ways that Africans are debating their cultural identity through music.
Rokia Traore, Zap Mama and Erykah Badu -- an interview with Rokia Traore, an incredible singer from Mali -- the segment about polyphony is an excellent musical example of a deep African and African American cultural value. National Public Radio's Website about Jazz -- includes historical material, audio clips, and more. August Wilson, Writing to the Blues -- a National Public Radio site and program about Pulitzer Prize winner August Wilson who has spent more than 20 years writing a cycle of plays that chronicle black life in 20th-century America, decade by decade.
Wilson says he first discovered the language of the black experience in Bessie Smith's blues. Let the Good Times Roll -- a radio program of excellent and insightful programs presenting a history of rhythm and blues -- many programs and lots of music and valuable information and perspective. Black Violin Link -- an excellent source of information and websites about Black violinists, composers, and more -- jazz, classical, and other forms of music represented -- did you know Frederick Douglass, the great orator and activist, played violin?
Black History and Classical Music -- a great website devoted to composers of African descent -- includes samples to listen to and lots of good links.
- African-American Experience and Issues of Race and Racism in U.S. Schools.
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Composers of African Descen t -- more good information about composers of African descent. Beyond the Playing Field - Jackie Robinson, Civil Rights Advocate -- Jackie Robinson not only broke the "color barrier" in major league baseball, but he was a life-long civil rights activist. This site provides some great primary source materials and lesson plans about this important aspect of Jackie Robinson's life and character. Black History Month -- activities and information to complement classroom topics. Black Facts Online -- an online searchable database of facts about Black history.
Kwanzaa Information Center -- good information and materials about this important annual and international celebration of people of African descent. The Official Kwanzaa Website -- site by the founder of Kwanzaa. Kwanzaa On the Net -- lots of good explanatory information and materials in support of the celebration of Kwanzaa.
Step Afrika -- a dance group that celebrates stepping, "an art form born at African American fraternities and based in Afriacn traditions. The Official Website of Malcolm X -- good biographical material, quotes, and much more. School Shootings and White Denial -- an internet article by Tim Wise, "School Shootings and White Denial" has generated valuable discussion of issues of race and racist stereotypes -- you will find his article and more at this site. Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia -- an online museum of racist objects that are powerful primary sources in helping educate about the depth, extent, and nature of racism in the U.
Stereotypes of African Americans -- a Wikipedia discussion of the many ways in which negative stereotypes of African Americans have been presented and reinforced, both historically and in the present. Racial Stereotypes in the Medi a -- a good article presenting and discussing the damaging effects of racial stereotypes presented in the media. A Historical Analysis of the Images of African American Women in Situation Comedies -- a good article with lots of useful history, concepts, data, and examples. The Black Image in the White Mind: From Hostility to Reverence: Black Males and Images in the Media -- reflection on an art exhibit, "African-American Representation of Masculinity" -- working to move beyond stereotypes.
Representation of the Black Male in Film -- a good article about this important issue -- includes history and current analysis.
Quick Links
The Slave Side of Sunday -- an article about a book in which pro football is criticized for its racist treatment of players. The Anti-Racist Alliance -- an organization committed to bringing "anti-racist structural power analysis to social service education and practice. Black Issues in Higher Education -- the nation's only magazine dedicated exclusively to minority issues in higher education. Articles are not strictly related to African American issues in education, but also cover issues faced by Native Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic American, women, and people with disabilities. Becoming an Anti-Racist White Ally: How a White Affinity Group Can Help -- a article about a "white ally" group and how it supported a group of white educators in becoming more anti-racist in their work and lives.
Center for the Study of White American Culture -- the homepage for this organization that encourages whites to better understand their own cultures and their role in helping create a fair and just multicultural society. Deconstructing the Race -- a website about whiteness studies as an "attempt to trace the economic and political history behind the invention of 'whiteness,' to attack the privileges given to so-called 'whites,' and to analyze the cultural practices in art, music, literature, and popular media that create and perpetuate notions of 'whiteness.
Whiteness Studies and the Multicultural Literature Classroom -- an article about the value of including whiteness studies in a multicultural approach to literature. Teaching about Whiteness -- a set of ideas and activities for teaching about whiteness as a racial and cultural category -- especially useful when teaching about issues of race and racism. African American Images in Picture Books -- a bibliography of children's books. Sojourn's Afro Page Review -- a very rich collection of links on many topics, including the arts, parenting, the student experience, and much more -- highly recommended..
The Identity Development of Multiracial Youth -- a digest about some important issues and considerations concerning the experiences of interracial youth. The Schooling of Multiracial Youth -- a digest about what educators can and should do to address the needs of interracial youth in schools. Seeing Black -- a "funky, alternative site for black reviews, opinions, and voice" -- good articles on a range of topics and some good links to other interesting sites.
Black Press USA -- an "independent source of news for the African American community" -- news items that come from a wire service made up exclusively of black journalists and press outlets -- also includes links to local black press websites. Black Commentator -- an online publication that offers commentary and analysis on issues facing the black community -- smart commentary on important social and political issues.
The Black Stripe -- "news, information, and culture affecting lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people of African descent. Black Parenting Toda y -- a magazine whose mission is to "share information about issues of importance to parents and guardians of African American children, and those who agree that responsible parenting is key to strengthening the black community and securing our future. The Michigan Citizen -- a newspaper published in Highland Park, MI that is written primarily for African Americans and covers a variety of topics including issues of education.
The Indianapolis Recorder -- a weekly newspaper that is "preparing a conscious community today and beyond" -- it started in and focused initially on local news -- it has since expanded and has been called an "advocate for and reporter of the Black community" by historian Richard Pierce. Racism -- No Way: Recognizing Racism in Schools -- this is an Australian website with articles on racism.
Of White Robes and Midnight Fright: Why I'm Offended by the Confederate Flag -- a chilling personal account of why the Confederate flag offends and should not be accepted as a symbol of heritage. Seeing Red Over Speech -- this site explores whether the term redneck is a racist word and creates ill will.
African American Health Issues -- a good website with links and resources. Closing the Health Gap -- "an educational campaign designed to help make good health an important issue among racial and ethnic minority populations who are affected by serious diseases and health conditions at far greater rates than other Americans. The "Colorblind" Attack on Your Health -- an online article from the magazine, Colorlines, about the racial disparities in healthcare and medical treatment and services.
African American Entrepreneurs -- a website created by the organization Fight for Hope. The site is dedicated to telling the stories of successful African American entrepreneurs in order to inspire youth within the community. Language, Education, and Social Change. In the Shadow of Race: Growing Up as a Multiethnic, Multiracial American. Overrepresentation of Minority Students in Special Education: How difficult do you suspect it is to enslave a person on their home ground with allies immediately available? And there were substantial numbers of them, at least enough of them to put up a formidable resistance.
The fact is that the colonists could not find the numbers of Native Americans to exploit and so they turned to other sources. They turned to whites in Europe and lots of whites were imported as indentured servants, to work in the fields. But when they found Africans, they found what they considered an endless labor supply. People who could be readily identified and so when they ran away they couldn't just melt into the population like Native Americans could. People who had the skills that they needed.
People who knew how to grow tobacco, people who knew how to grow rice. They found the ideal from their standpoint, the ideal labor source. And so these were people who could provide the labor and who could also provide the skill, and so they were used extensively in rice growing in South Carolina and in tobacco growing in the Chesapeake Bay area.
And it really is on the basis of their work and their skill that a colonial economy is being built, which never matches the vast wealth that the Spanish were getting from Latin America, but does provide an increasingly important foundation for the English economy. At some point late in the 18th century, or the middle of that century, there was a conscious decision that Africans would become the laborers of choice. And from that point on what you find is a decrease in the number of white indentured servants. Because African slave labor is proving more plentiful, and more profitable. How did racial ideas develop in early America?
There have always been differences between people, and sometimes those differences were defined by religions, sometimes ethnicity, sometimes family unit, sometimes national unit. But increasingly as we get into the American historical context, as we move into the 18th century, that difference starts to be defined in racial terms. This is not something that happens immediately, it happens slowly over time.
If you look in the 18th century there are plenty of examples of blacks and whites who are lumped together on the basis of where they stand in the society. In the 18th century, for example, there is this status, unfreedom - that is, people who are not free. Now some of those people are slaves, and some of those people are indentured servants. Now whites could be indentured servants, and that was a state of unfreedom. It was very different than slavery but it was certainly a state of unfreedom. One of the things that I think we don't realize is that upwards of 80 percent of Europeans - white Europeans - who came to British North America came in a state of indentured servitude.
An indentured servant sells his or her labor - not person but labor - for some specified period of time, generally seven years, but that could vary, to someone who needs a laborer in the British North American colonies.
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Then that person is held in the state of indentured servitude for a period of time and works for his or her master. At the end of your indenture, you were free. Slavery was a very different institution but for the period of time that the indentured servant was an indentured servant, that person had very few rights. And that person was worked in a way that provided advantage to his or her master.
So there were many ways in which the life of an indentured servant paralleled the life of a slave. Blacks could be indentured servants and they could be slaves. But if you read the accounts of some of the colonial elites in American society, they often will refer to those at the bottom of society in ways that make it very clear that they have lumped these people together. And in response, you often find that blacks and whites, who are at the bottom of American society in the state of unfreedom, often find that shared condition of unfreedom to be a fine foundation for building alliances.
How did Africans and poor Europeans make common cause? Most Americans don't recognize the extent to which interracial alliances in American society - in protest movements and movements to bring about better conditions for people at the bottom of the economic scale - have a long history in American society.
We can go back to , for example, when in Virginia there was an uprising called Bacon's Rebellion. It started out as a rebellion against Native Americans but wound up as a rebellion against the colonial elites of the Colony of Virginia. In fact, the capitol of Virginia was burned and the governor was driven out of the colonial capitol. This was an alliance of black slaves, white indentured servants, and lower class whites - who were all protesting conditions that inhibited their freedom and limited their opportunities. This was an alliance that really concerned the elites of Virginia society.
And in fact they were so concerned that after Bacon's Rebellion was put down, a series of laws was passed which made it very clear that there were different penalties in Virginia for whites and blacks. Which provided different restrictions depending upon whether you were white or black, and generally made it more difficult for interracial alliances to be established. This was done to send a message to whites and blacks - that there are fewer and fewer bases, fewer and fewer grounds upon which interracial relations and interracial alliances can be formed.
But throughout the 18th century you find examples of blacks and whites who come together in common concern and in common action. In there was an incident in New York that was termed The Slave Conspiracy - but there were American Indians and white Americans who were executed for participating in that conspiracy. All those pre-Revolutionary mobs - the Stamp Act mob, certainly we know about the mob at the Boston massacre in - all those so-called mobs were also interracial coalitions because blacks and whites found themselves in very similar economic positions and they joined together to protest the ways in which they were being oppressed economically.
From the standpoint of blacks and whites at the lower end of the colonial scale, there was every reason to work together to protest laws and measures that put them at an economic disadvantage and oppressed them economically. Why was American slavery different? It's important to realize that slavery is not an American invention.
Slavery is as old as recorded human society. In fact, we realize that the English word "slave," comes from the word "Slav," and it was applied to those people in eastern Europe who were bound and brought to the Mediterranean where they grew sugar. The fact is that slavery is a very old institution - there was slavery in various parts of Europe, and in various parts of Africa. But the thing that makes American slavery so distinctive is it is based on race. America's slavery is justified not, for example, as West African slavery is justified - where people were captured in battle and then held in a kind of captivity.
Think about that for a second. Any of us could have lost that battle. Any of us could have been held in captivity. Any of us could have been a slave.
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But when you base slavery on the question of race, then if one of us is black and one is white and slavery is linked to blackness, then one of us could never have been a slave. And it is that kind of special category of human bondage that American falls into which makes it so distinctive, and in some ways as we look back in history, that is one of the things that has made it so destructive in terms of relationships within American society.
What is the relationship between slavery and freedom? In today's society, you know, the biggest problem we face is not slavery - slavery was abolished in , more than years ago. Instead, we face the problem of the rationalization of slavery in a nation built on freedom. In the 18th century, when we were trying to say to the world that we believed that God gave people certain rights that Man could not deprive them of - which is what it says in The Declaration of Independence - we were trying to say to the world that we were a new kind of country, the kind of country and the kind of people that stand up for the rights of the individual.
Now when you are trying to make that kind of connection with the world, and you are also, by the way, a nation in which slaves provide the foundation of your economy, you've got to do some pretty fancy footwork in order not to seem what you in fact are. And the way you do that is to say, "Yeah, but you know, there is something different about these people. This whole business of inalienable rights is fine, but it only applies to certain people.
And theories of race are used to do that. So now you don't have to feel at all like a hypocrite, because you are making the case that these people are different: They don't have the same rights.
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In fact, they can't handle those rights. In fact, holding them in slavery is really doing them a favor. So you build this notion over generations and then when slavery is over, the notion still lingers. In some ways, it would have been better if America had just looked the world in the eye and said, "Look, we hold these people in slavery because we need their labor, and we have got the power to do it. But what we said was, there is something different about these people - and by doing that, it means that when slavery is over, that rationalization for slavery remains.
And it is that rationalization which takes on new incarnations in the late 19th and all through the 20th century. It is that rationalization which we now recognize as what we call American racism. How does this rationalization take a toll? Thomas Jefferson is in many ways a personification of America. He is a person with a lofty ideals. He writes them down in the sacred document of American society, The Declaration of Independence. Those are the magic words of American society, wonderfully lofty aims and goals.
But like America, Jefferson does not live up to his principles. And he is bothered by it. He lives in a kind of anxiety actually between what he says and what he does. This is a person committed to human freedom who holds over human beings in the state of slavery - and he knows that that is a massive contradiction. America is exactly the same way. I mean, we are a society based on principles literally to die for, principles that are so wonderful it brings tears to your eyes. But we are also a society that so often has allowed itself not to live by those principles, to ignore those principles.
And we are conflicted by that. We live in a kind of heightened state of anxiety because we know we aren't what we could be or what we say we are. Race is at the center of both those dilemmas.