On the one hand, it is intended to demonstrate the economic benefits to companies. On the other hand, costs which can be avoided by prevention are estimated and most cost effective preventive measures are identified. The economic benefit for companies is understood to be shown convincingly by scientific studies. Additionally, the estimated costs of work-related diseases supports a strong commitment to workplace prevention. In Germany, the annual costs of work-related diseases amount to 44 billion Euro, resulting from 33 billion Euro caused by absenteeism and 11 billion Euro caused by early retirement.
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Volume 24 Issue Sep , pp. Overall, our study contributes to a better understanding of the interplay of leadership, job demands and the behavior in case of illness among scientific staff by considering interactions between different types of job demands and leadership.
Although highly speculative, threshold models following social exchange theories, such as Adams's equity theory, may explain the results. Adams postulates that people strive for equity, that is, a balanced relationship between their efforts e. This evaluation includes the comparison of the experienced ratio of efforts and benefits either with a desired reference or with the ratio of significant others.
Thereby, equity theory implies the existence of a threshold for reactions toward changes of the ratios. A threshold is passed if the own ratio is significantly different from the ratio of a significant other e. This concept is also known in the literature about psychological contract breach. Thus, contract breaches are perceptions by persons that obligations in this exchange process have not been met Rousseau, If the change is important enough, that is, if the breach is outside the zone of acceptance, people may respond to it, for instance, with quitting their jobs.
Although first signs of psychological contract breach do not seem to affect the attitudes of the employees, responses suddenly take place when a threshold is reached Rigotti, It is possible that academic staff evaluates its efforts and benefits ratio in a case of illness.
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Thus, specific levels of a job demand e. Our data may show that high levels of supervisorial pressure are related to highest levels of time pressure, such that a threshold is reached. Thus, if another job demand is increased additionally e. Therefore, the relational pattern between job demands and perceived time pressure might change, namely, the positive relationship between a single job demand and time pressure is weakened. The main limitation is the cross-sectional design of this study, which does not allow us to deduce causal relationships between the examined variables.
For this purpose, longitudinal research designs would be necessary. However, the theoretical model COR and empirical studies support the expected causal direction of the examined relationships. The estimates for the relationships between the variables in this study should be interpreted with caution because of common method bias. However, self-reports may be appropriate to measure the work characteristics in this study as they are operationalized as perceived working conditions.
Moreover, self-reports of presenteeism should be valid. Presenteeism is a subjective response to a state of feeling unwell while this state may be best assessed by the persons themselves. Therefore, self-reports should theoretically be the best measurement method Conway and Lance, We also acknowledge that mediation analysis based on cross-sectional data is not recommended and thus, our findings have a rather exploratory character.
The findings call for a longitudinal replication. The unique sample of scientific staff and accordingly the special supervisory mentoring relationships in the scientific field suggest caution before generalizing our findings to other occupations and fields. However, the role of supervisors beyond the scientific field, for instance, in industrial settings where PhD students are likely to be employed in research and development may include mentoring functions.
Within such settings our results may be transferable to occupations with comparable working conditions like high specializations, lack of replaceability and time pressure. Finally, limitations regarding the measurement have to be considered. Supervisorial pressure and accumulation of work were measured with single items and therefore recall problems, social desirability, and the reliability of the measurement are potential limiting factors. However, these items were used because of economic reasons and for the comparability of the results with the studies by Ashby and Mahdon as well as Aronsson and Gustafsson To confirm the findings of this study and to overcome its limitations, more studies are needed addressing the following issues.
At first, future studies, especially longitudinal studies should consider indirect effects between different job demands and their potential interactions in explaining presenteeism. Thus, the interplay of job demands and the behavior in case of illness will become more transparent and causal links can be examined. Secondly, there is a high variety of working conditions for PhD students and postdocs because of factors like different sources of funding, such as scholarships, third party funding, or regular employment at research institutions.
Thus, further research should aim to better differentiate within the academic staff and to provide more representative data of PhD students and postdocs. Another issue relates to gender equality and its legal regulations in different countries, for instance, paid maternal leave.
In this study sex has no lasting influence on presenteeism. One reason could be the relatively strong legal protection of parents in Germany and thus, a comparatively smaller amount of additional pressure in a case of pregnancy. However, future research in other legal systems should consider gender issues as sources of attendance pressure. The fourth issue addresses the measurement of presenteeism. Usually, a single item asking for the recall of presenteeism within a specific time frame is used to measure presenteeism.
This can lead to measurement problems like social desirability. In this study, we therefore used a multi-item scale to overcome these problems.
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Future studies should also use multi-item measurements. Recall difficulties represent another problem when assessing presenteeism. Therefore, future research might use alternatives to retrospective self-report like diary studies. The fifth issue is related to the highly speculative explanation of the findings with threshold models. In the future, researchers should rethink the existing theories of presenteeism and should develop a more dynamic paradigm to analyze the processes leading to presenteeism. The observed relationship between supervisorial pressure to attend and presenteeism are an indicator of the impact of leadership and attendance policies on presenteeism in the academic field.
The perceived behavior of supervisors seems to be related to the health behavior of their PhD students and postdocs, both directly and through variables like perceived time pressure.
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Supervisors should keep this in mind in order to avoid misguided attendance, which might be harmful in the long term Taloyan et al. Moreover, scientific organizations are already characterized by high specialization of the employees and therefore by a lack of replaceability, time pressure, and accumulation of work. Thus, regarding the findings of this study, additional pressure to attend by supervisors is not useful to increase the attendance of PhD students and postdocs.
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On the contrary, supervisors should consider their behavior as job resource to enhance the health of their employees and consequently their performance. The effects of supportive leadership on employees' health, like lower back pain Torp et al. This study showed the job demands time pressure and supervisorial pressure to be positively related to presenteeism in the academic field.
In addition, supervisorial pressure and presenteeism were indirectly related via time pressure, which conditionally changes for different levels of accumulation of work. Thus, if accumulation of work is high additional supervisorial pressure has only a minor association with presenteeism.
The results illustrate the value of rethinking the existing theories of presenteeism, especially in terms of indirect relationships between different job demands and their potential interactions in explaining presenteeism. Furthermore, practitioners should revise attendance policies in the academic field. This study was carried out with informed consent from all subjects about our respect of their confidentiality and anonymity. All subjects participated voluntarily and were free to stop the survey at any time. Based on this assumptions, this kind of study do not need a ethical approval of a committee in Germany.
Both, TS and CD exchanged research ideas, discussed recent developments of topics like presenteeism and leadership and designed the outline of the article together during several meetings. CD collected data via an online survey within the context of a research project of the Department of Work and Organizational Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig Germany. CD did the preparation and the analyses of the data. Both, TS and CD interpreted and discussed the results during several meetings and colloquia.
Both, TS and CD discussed the different versions of the draft during several meetings and telephone calls. TS did the language editing and proofing to improve the clarity of the manuscript and help highlight our research. TS and CD both made substantial contributions to the work reported in the article. Both, TS and CD give their final approval of the version to be published.
Both agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. CD will act as a corresponding author for the paper. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Is it time to stop? What reviewers should expect from authors regarding common method bias in organizational research. A moderated mediation analysis of job demands, presenteeism, and absenteeism. An interdisciplinary meta-analysis of the potential antecedents, correlates, and consequences of protege perceptions of mentoring. Supportive colleague, unsupportive supervisor: Toxic mentors or toxic proteges?: Supervisory mentoring by advisers: Consequences of sickness presence and sickness absence on health and work ability: Going ill to work: The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Selection, Awareness, and Control , eds A.
Clarendon Press , — The Relation between Leadership and Wellbeing: Effects of presenteeism in chronic occupational musculoskeletal disorders: The relation between presenteeism and different types of future sickness absence. Presenteeism in the workplace: Attendance dynamics at work: How psychological stress in the workplace influences presenteeism propensity: Zum Stand der Organisationsentwicklung an deutschen Hochschulen - ein Online-Screening Who takes care of us and our processes?: State-of-the-art organisational development at German universities - an online screening.
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