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Sometimes, they are rewarded in gold. Shortly thereafter he sells his master, too: The merchant becomes a villain, and the young nobleman a casualty of the profit-driven society. In America, he discovers, his nobility no longer counts for anything. He is subject to the same ruthless economy as everyone else. In the fields and kitchens of the plantation, he learns to transform American crops and game potatoes, chilies, and turtle meat into tasty dishes that win the favor of his fellow slaves.
They succeed in escaping but are soon arrested by Spanish soldiers who mistake them for French pirates. They run into the woods, swim to an island and, like Robinson Crusoe, must hunt, fish, cook, and build pontoons out of logs in order to survive. Mont Val exchanges the inherent privilege of the nobleman for a different kind of merit, based on his ability to transform natural resources into usable goods.
He willingly participates in the pillage of a wealthy Spanish settlement but also prevents one of his fellow pirates from raping a young Spanish beauty His discomfort becomes clearer afterwards, when they divide up the spoils of the venture: He prizes his life more highly than the other pirates do.
She takes him into her home, helps him heal, and finally puts him on a ship back to Europe, where he rejoices in his safety and vows never to return to America. His virtue in saving the woman is the cause of his redemption. Yet even this seeming reversion to a traditional, chivalric narrative pattern is tainted by materialism.
Although the tale ends happily, the tone is far from triumphant. When Mont Val forswears America at the end of the story, the adventure narrative becomes a moral tale. When Mont Val experiences misfortune, it is often because an immoral adversary has profited at his expense. The author modernizes the adventure plot by placing its many unfortunate events within an economic frame.
In contrast, the pirates in Les Nouvelles and in other Caribbean adventure tales were prepared to risk their health and safety for food, goods, or bullion. In the narrative logic of pirate adventures, in other words, material profit displaced aristocratic honor as the epitome of achievement. This version is a work of two halves. What unites both halves of the work is the recurring theme of the preeminence of money in the Caribbean.
The book foregrounds this theme from the very outset, in its establishment of the narrative voice and point of view. This disillusioned perspective remains evident in the first part of the book that describes and classifies the natural riches of the Caribbean in terms of their use or exchange value.
What follows is a lengthy descriptive scene in which Exquemelin vividly brings to life the process of adding up the value of the treasure:. After the slaves seized in battle have been sold and after the spoils have been divided, the pirates celebrate their success with games and feasting, but also with plans for the next profitable venture: By risking life for profit, in other words, pirate figures literally put a price on their own heads. The document stipulates that officers injured in the fight receive a larger part of the spoils in remuneration for their bodily loss:. Indeed, the agreement resembles modern-day insurance contracts.
Yet there is something disturbing about its terms. The repetitive, short sentences disconcertingly take the form of equations: The chasse-parties make visible the metaphoric substitution of money or commodities some of which happen to be human commodities for the body. The equation of human life with commercial value is endemic in the world described in narratives of piracy.
Adventurers seize not only bullion but also prisoners, who are later transformed into monetary riches in the form of ransom. They attack slave ships and convert their human cargo into cash at illegal or corrupt versions of the sanctioned, regulated slave markets. Money ensures the kind of esteem and dignity formerly conferred on heroes who displayed conventional forms of honor and valor. Commodities such as chocolate and sugar, for example, altered the everyday habits and appetites of elite French subjects.
In her recent book, Trading Places: She interprets the relative absence of literary representations of the Antilles as indicative of a cultural desire to forget the abusive economic structures i. The minor genre of Caribbean adventure tales may represent one textual space in which French readers did directly confront unsettling questions about the human costs of the material riches produced in the island colonies. They may be liberated from state oversight, these narratives suggest, but they are bound by their own greed.
In this way, adventure narratives complemented contemporary moral and economic discourses that questioned the role of the profit motive in civilized society. Specters of the Atlantic: Finance, Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History. Duke University Press, The Compass of Society: Commerce and Absolutism in Old-Regime France. The Novel and the Sea.
Princeton University Press, Cartes, tableaux, chronologies, bibliographies Ed. Histoire des aventuriers flibustiers. University of Pennsylvania Press, Creolization in the Early French Caribbean. Gomberville, Marin le Roy sieur de. Belin-Leprieur et Plon, — Yale University Press, The Phantom of Chance: Edinburgh University Press, Rakes, Highwaymen, and Pirates: Johns Hopkins University Press, The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade.
University of Minnesota Press, [original ]. Pirates, corsaires et flibustiers , eds. The Age of Chance: Gambling in Western Culture. Cambridge University Press, Villiers, Patrick and Jean-Pierre Duteil. This comparative approach allows her to note that the few texts to portray Atlantic piracy in the second half of the seventeenth century pale in comparison to the large number of early seventeenth-century texts to feature Mediterranean pirates.
The text of the Code Michaud may be found in Isambert Patrick Villiers and Jean-Pierre Duteil write that, although by there was a clear distinction between corsaires contracted by states for the protection of their ships and outlaw pirates in the Mediterranean, no such clarity existed in the Antilles: The young couple runs away to sea together but is shipwrecked during a battle with pirates.
Leonor dies when a shark bites her leg off. Sent to Europe for his education, he takes up with bad company, seduces a girl, and is forced to escape to Brazil, passing through Africa en route. He falls in with English pirates, then French ones, with whom he seduces more women. He eventually flees to the Mediterranean, where his adventures with corsaires affect a peace treaty between France and Algiers.
However, the only way to grasp fully the extravagance of these stories is to read them. The novella even includes recipes for potatoes with pimento sauce and turtle with broad beans and peas in herbs See Grussi for a more detailed account of the history of aristocratic gambling in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century France specifically. In his work on eighteenth-century literary aventuriers , Alexandre Stroev includes travelers and wanderers who search relentlessly for a better way of life.
He argues that these figures reflect larger social fears, fantasies, and desires 3. The distinction between slavery and servitude was of utmost importance in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century legal theory. Not surprisingly, then, the pirates in adventure narratives frequently target slave ships. See Serge Daget for an account of the intersections of piracy and the institutional slave trade in the early modern Caribbean. Printable PDF of Rousseau, — Les vaines justifications paraissent alors dissonantes et parasitaires. Presses universitaires de Rennes, Hannon, Patricia, Fabulous Identities: Women Writers and the History of the Fairy Tale.
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Le titre mentionne toujours sauf exception: Mirrors deceive and mirrors reveal. Mirrors are ephemeral, just like beauty. The tale concludes with a magical transformation in the desert from monkey to beautiful woman—after which she marries her cousin, the prince, who once rejected her apish love, but eagerly accepts her now human hand. Babiole reunites with her birth mother, and they live happily ever after, free from bestial tones of the simian. Aspects of seeing, seeing oneself, and being seen are salient when considering this simian fairy tale. Imitation, linked with ugliness, refinement, and beauty, becomes a site of stigma: The post-colonial perspective will be important for my reading of this tale, and a surprising juxtaposition of two mirror scenes later in the article will take this into consideration.
Self-reflexivity again plays a major role in collecting and cabinets of curiosity during this time period: In this frontispiece, we see an older woman, dressed as a sibyl, with glasses, holding a book. Two standing children—a girl and a boy—accompany her. On the floor in front of her is a cherubic child playing with a monkey on a leash.
Jones, on the other hand, highlights how the monkey is tied to the theme of imitation: Jones also reads this sign of imitation as signaling that the literary conteuses of the era used parody: While I agree that imitation is clearly at stake, what interests me here is the mirror-like image the monkey and child represent; and like Jones, I am fascinated by the allusion to man and God. The monkey is clearly seen as inferior and degenerate to the human, while man is seen as the inferior image of God; this hierarchical chain, with man being the monkey of God, is, in itself, a clever parody. Also we must not forget that monkeys were clearly connected to Satan, as he was also the ape of God Janson 17— Already, we see an emphasis on vision and beauty: And indeed, this superlative beauty of the human infant is rapidly followed by a dramatic change that is quite disturbing.
First, this concerning and horrifying conduct by the metamorphosed guenon incites gasps and cries of horror from the female courtesans. The queen is the most horrified of all. Here the aristocratic women lose their polished exteriors and become unrefined, primal, and emotive. However, in this case, the queen had a taste of initial, human beauty and then was immediately robbed of her pride and happiness.
The worst thing imaginable happened—a beastly transformation—perhaps even more appalling than the death of a child. In what follows, we shall see how several important terms and ideas are at work in the preceding passage. Was she always already a monkey, even her spirit, as this passage seems to imply? On appelle aussi guenon , une femme vieille ou laide, quand on luy veut dire quelque injure. The term was used to lambaste and castigate the feminine, but also implies a narrative of ownership and possession connected to plaisir.
The atmosphere of female domestic and aristocratic space is permeated with ugliness and misfortune. Here we will examine sight, mirroring, and breastfeeding. It is interesting to consider that vision is an integral part of the mother-infant relationship, or at least the wet nurse-infant relationship. Mirroring becomes paramount in this tale, and we see ugliness and monstrosity converge at this point.
This mirroring of the maternal face is remarkable and a hallmark of the mother-infant pair, and the queen is cheated of this special relationship. The mirroring relationship is foiled by the beastly transformation. This self-reflexive despair does not involve her child: How will this shameful and ugly event play out for the queen herself in relation to her subjects? Third, in this human-to-animal transformation of this dramatic scene, we witness one of the worst nightmares of a woman of this period: The child-beast who carries the curse of his or her mother—whether the mother thought about monkeys too much implying a narrative of mental illness, obsession, or impure thoughts , or whether a fairy cursed her—was indeed a monstrous sign.
The little prince wants to keep the monkey as a pet. She becomes a royal toy, a strange object of interrogation, and even an uncanny spectacle. The little prince demands that:. Babiole is dressed as a princess, but she clearly does not have a truly royal body: Cultural grooming is paramount in this passage.
She is dressed as a royal body and taught to behave and carry herself as a human, but then, in the next sentence, she becomes the most beautiful and charming guenon in the world, which seems to be in direct opposition to the aforementioned idea of ugliness and to the term guenon , although the idea of possession emerges front and center. A narrative of race inserts itself here: This explicit blackness is an important signal, embedded in a narrative of animality, much in the same fashion that the colonized body was treated in the same manner as the animal—purchased, collected, displayed, and used.
Babiole, much like the colonized, is imprisoned deeply within her animalized body. She then immediately strives to juxtapose this bestiality with a description of how full of vivacity and energy Babiole is. These two conflicting aspects of her character trouble the reader, forcing the reader to examine her own relationship to the bestial and the refined. In opposition to her mother, her aunt and her young cousin exhibit her. This description recalls naturalist texts: Thus Babiole, the monkey princess, is not so repellent to her aunt or her cousin, the prince: She is no longer the product of a monstrous birth; her value rests in her difference in a society that esteems collections and oddities.
The objectification and display of her body continues: She is empathetic; when the prince cries, she does also. Cartesian philosophy was not foreign to the conteuses: He also writes that they resemble and imitate man, but that they are indeed not human — Babiole is constantly grappling with bestial, violent feelings: Here we see a perverse cycle of refinement unfolding.
Moroever, to be refined, one must collect, and one must participate in the circulation and exchange of bibelots of the period. Cultivation and refinement are something to work towards, and they are not completely inherent to the soul—human or animal. She is a wondrous spectacle, so very human, but not quite. The zenith of her refinement is, however, represented by the fact that Babiole falls in love with her cousin, the prince.
In the case of Babiole, she pathologizes the pain of her non-reciprocal love for the prince. When she confesses her love for the prince, he laughs This animal-human tension, and the subsequent repulsion Babiole feels, manifests itself by a refusal to look in the mirror. Babiole is all too conscious of her curse. During this time, mirrors underlined beauty, finery and physical perfection. This scene of Babiole and her mirror tells the tale of a despised relationship with the mirror image.
Ugliness and self-loathing is paramount in this episode. In fact, the only time that Babiole looks into a mirror, she wishes to shatter it. Moreover, an emphasis on the fracturing of the image, or the animal self, is central to this portion of the text. Very similar themes are played out in an early nineteenth-century novel. Ourika chronicles the life of a young Senegalese woman torn from her native land, enslaved, and consequently raised by a French family during the revolution. From the age of two onward, the aristocratic family that raises her with their son, Charles, culturally grooms her.
In the case of Babiole, her bestial body prevents their union; in the case of Ourika, it is her black body that forbids her to love and be loved. Although the two are separated by more than a hundred years, the connection between the black body and the simian is evident. The other, whether animal or the colonized, is cast outside of the realm of true beauty. In the end, Babiole is transformed into a human female and seems to achieve true refinement and beauty according to period ideals; in the case of Ourika, Charles chooses to marry another, and this devastating news devours Ourika, who dies from a broken heart in a convent, without her aristocratic family.
These scenes convey the fear of the other, the anxiety of incivility and unrefinement that is equated with ugliness and the bestial. Babiole is stripped of agency. Thus the unsettled nature of imitation culminates at this point in the fairy tale. It is interesting to consider the ambassador-parrot who delivers a message from the monkey king, Magot, to the object of his kingly desire, Babiole.
A human being would have realized that cleanliness had been achieved and ceased, due to higher cognitive abilities: He is not full of spirit and vivacity, as Babiole is. One imitates, but does so carefully and with prudence: Imitation of the refined and the beautiful is evoked as powerful in this fairy tale.
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It is her physical refinement that saves Babiole. Again, the mirror becomes integral to seeing and being seen: In addition to this violent rhetoric, the simian is clearly connected to the other, non-white body. However, Babiole claims that she is cultivated and witty: The struggle between the beastly and the refined and its connection to beauty persists.
The queen asks if Babiole is capable of tenderness, because, in the end, she is a beast, even if she is capable of speaking. At last, the queen realizes that Babiole is her daughter and she tries to sequester Babiole in a castle, for this time she feels that she cannot kill her own flesh and blood; she has so much spirit, this Babiole, and it is too bad that the child is just not natural Babiole is a contaminated mirror of her mother, and her female relatives in general, and an unsavory reminder of a tormented past inflicted by an evil fairy.
Babiole carries the physical sign of savagery and unrefinement, yet she is also intellectually refined. The queen as well as readers of the conte would interpret her as a dangerous and uncontrollable hybrid package of civility against incivility. It is only at the end of the tale, and only after the transformation of Babiole into a woman, that the prince and her mother finally accept her. Yet this freedom from the bestial is complicated indeed. King Magot and his gifts initiate her transformation from monkey to human. Earlier in the fairy tale, he gave Babiole a glass chest with an olive and a hazelnut This is an extreme change from the previous desire to break a mirror when looking at her reflection as a monkey.
Now she has an urgent desire to look at herself as a beautiful woman. But her beauty as a woman is not typical—it is superlative. The opposition between ugliness and refinement operates clearly here. Again, we come back to these binaries of ugliness and refinement, and ugliness and beauty: The ugly and the bestial are decidedly conflated in this tale.
Beauty of the soul and of the spirit is held in higher esteem than physical beauty. In the case of Babiole, her animality limits her to the bestial realm. Et qui pourtant des plus grands hommes. Mais il faudroit en leur faveur,. Que quelque enchanteur charitable. The monkey is a figure conflated with evil, curses, ugliness, and women—but the monkey also reflects an aspect of sublimated humanity. The monkey allows us to see ourselves: Daston, Lorraine and Katharine Park.
Wonders and the Order of Nature — The Original French Text. The Modern Language Association of America, Rotterdam and La Haye: The Warburg Institute, University of London, French Fairy Tales of the s. Twice Upon a Time: Legerstee, Maria and Jean Varghese. Vanderbilt University, May Animals in the Middle Ages. Buford and Nancy Lane.
Conceiving the Old Regime: Oxford University Press, See Tuttle, Conceiving the Old Regime , and Candide sees the two women being pursued by monkeys nipping at their buttocks, and he shoots them, in order to save the women. The women are terribly distraught, because they reveal that the monkeys were not tormenting them, but the monkeys were, indeed, their lovers. Firstly, magot denotes a simian. Finally, Magot is connected with wealth—as he is kingly and quite rich.
Printable PDF of Ganim, 63— Despite having a register-like quality, the book carries a distinctly interpretive dimension. Near the end of his work, Contant includes a florid but poignant tribute to one of his patrons, a prominent Poitevin known as the Sieur Ligneron Mauclerc that summarizes many of the key themes, perspectives, and questions raised in the text:. Such objects are often of a rare and alien—if not monstrous—quality.
But once retrieved and displayed within the confines of a cabinet , they become accessible to an increasingly inquisitive public. The originality of the text lies in its ambition not only to encapsulate but to marry natural and literary creation within the confines of a mini-epic. On one level, the world is rendered intelligible first by taking the reader through the sequence of plant, animal, human, and divine being, and then on another by suffusing those orders with literary meaning.
Plants are celebrated for their mythological as well as their medicinal functions. Du Bartas models his work on Scripture, and in particular the Old Testament, to interpret the creation of the world. Like Contant, he gives detailed representations of natural phenomena adding descriptions of stars and planets , but does so in the form of biblical exegesis. Contant is not nearly so focused on devotional exercise. But where Du Bartas, as a poet, is an interpreter of natural science, Contant is also a practitioner of it. Contant lived between and and, like his father Jacques, was a prominent member of the Calvinist community in Poitiers.
Both father and son shared a talent for business and botany, with Paul publishing their combined Oeuvres in Relatively free from the doctrine and the censorship of the Catholic Church, Reformist collectors were able to pursue their work more openly than some of their Catholic counterparts. Yet, as was the case with many who held similar collections, he benefitted both financially and scientifically from mercantile exploration and exchange, amassing an impressive personal fortune that spoke to his entrepreneurial initiative and sparked envy in his detractors. There is no mention of a Church, and allusions to Christ are indirect at best, but intermediaries for Contant do come in the form of the biblical, mythological, and literary antecedents that help the reader understand the rich significance of the plant and animal holdings in the garden and the cabinet.
Cabinet of mirabilia from the Oeuvres of Jacques and Paul Contant, Botany Libraries of the Harvard University Hebraria. The collections, often displayed in glass cases, or on large tables, were meant to demonstrate a taste for learning and sophistication as well as material comfort and success.
The word cabinet comes most directly from the sets of drawers in which the samples were stored SeeFig. The problem associated with these collections stemmed from the fact that the items displayed often represented multifarious and bizarre compilations of animal, vegetable, and mineral material that ranged from the fake to the marvelously authentic. His own cabinet contained thousands of objects, among them:. As the title suggests, the book which appeared in , gave reports on similar collections in Belgium and France.
This last designation calls explicit attention to the extraordinary, if not inexplicable character of certain specimens. In a sense, nature becomes artificial because an arrangement of the kind represented in the image could never be realized. What bursts forth is a floral abundance meant to overwhelm with its breadth, depth, and exoticism see Fig. The numerals are cross-referenced in the poem itself, as each specimen carries a description that elaborates its significance. Not only does the fecundity overflow the boundaries imposed by humanity, it dwarfs the animal life that ostensibly supports the vessel.
Likewise, the lyric itself is not of stellar quality in that the persona of the poet is sometimes without contour, the rhymed couplets often seem stilted, and the language and imagery sometimes border on the prosaic. In addition, the descriptive nature of the work can become digressive to the point where readers have difficulty charting the progression of the text.
While the initial line certainly contains some degree of exaggeration, Contant suggests that his cabinet surpasses anything that nature itself has produced. Later in the poem, Contant does ascribe substantial credit to God and to nature for the splendor around him. All the same, he does not merely see himself as reflecting this majesty in his text. Glory, while the purview of nature and of God, also extends to Contant himself. Toy des arbres le chef! Following the cedar are the pines from Savoy which, Contant reminds us, were reputedly used to build the Trojan horse.
While nature tries to work in harmony with humankind, it does not have a willing partner. For Contant, humanity is as corrupt as it has ever been:. Humanity continues neither to see nor to appreciate the earthly paradise in which it lives.