Lngiiolt SUulier over pnlmyrcnk Skulplur, p. Chabot, Choix d'inscriptions de Palmyre, pi. Kunst des alien Persien, pi. Ingholt, Berytus, 3, , pi. XX, 2 ; Fifth Season, pi. XXVI, 6 ; etc. D, Archaeoloyical Hislory of Iran, p. Enfin, pour le Turkestan chinois: Gabiuel, Syria, 7, , Syria. Rostovtzkkf, Yale Classical Studies, 5, , fig. Excavations al Dura, Sixth Season, p. XI, 11 et 12 ; Collection Pi. British Museum Catalogne, Part Ida, pi. XLWt, 2, -4, clc.
Heuzfeld, Ausgrabungen in Samnrra, p.
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British Museum Catalogne, Pnrlhin, pi. LD, Am Tor von Asien, pi. M Pfister, Textiles de Palmyre,?. VI ; et maintenant: XCIX, 1 ; Byzanlion, 2, , p. Enfin quelques figures des fresques de la synagogue de Doura. M Lo relief donl nous publions la photographie est au Louvre: M Sur la forme de ce bonnet chez les anciens Perses: Schoppa, Darstellung der Penser, p. Ie Yog kl, Sculpture de Malhura, pi. Sarric et Herzfkld, Iranische Felsreliefs, p. XI Phraatelll ; pi. Schoppa, Dar- stellung der Penser, p.
Syria, XIII, , pi. XI ; statue de Cbastau, roi Kouchan: Sur le relief de Sar i Machhad Herz- fkld, Revue des arts asiatiques, 5, , p. On multiplierait ces exemples. Weckkr, Indo- skythien PauJy-Wissowa. Ciinters, Schivert der Sky then, p. Rostovtzeff, Iranians and Greeks, pi. XXIV, 4 et 5 ; etc. Mais en Egypte, la plaque d'obturation ne. Baur, Excavations at Dura, Third Season, p.
Rodkawaldt, Jahrbuch des archaeologischen Instituts, 34, , p. Ingholt, Beiylus, 2, Voir notamment les plis de la tunique sur le ventre. Godakd et Hackin, Antiq. I7 British Museum Catalogue, Parlhia, pi. Aegyptus, 13, , p. XVII et dans laquelle M. Rooenwaldt voit une influence iranienne -.
Gnomon, 7, , p. SruzYGowski, Orient oder Rom. Hacmn, Monuments Piot, 28, Ingholt, Berytus, 2, , p. False, Geschichte der Seidenweberei, fig. En voici quelques exemples: Gems in the British Museum, ; Fossing, Catalogue of Before AD , Palmyra enjoyed autonomy and was attached to the Roman province of Syria , having its political organization influenced by the Greek city-state model during the first two centuries AD.
The city became a Roman colonia during the third century, leading to the incorporation of Roman governing institutions, before becoming a monarchy in Following its destruction in , Palmyra became a minor center under the Byzantines and later empires. Its destruction by the Timurids in reduced it to a small village. Under French Mandatory rule in , the inhabitants were moved into the new village of Tadmur , and the ancient site became available for excavations.
The name "Tadmor" is known from the early second millennium BC; [2] eighteenth century BC tablets from Mari written in cuneiform record the name as "Ta-ad-mi-ir", while Assyrian inscriptions of the eleventh century BC record it as Ta-ad-mar. Palmyra began as a small settlement near the Efqa spring on the southern bank of Wadi al-Qubur. Also north of the wadi was the Great Colonnade , Palmyra's 1. The Temple of Nabu and the Roman theater were built on the colonnade's southern side. At its height during the reign of Zenobia, Palmyra had more than , residents.
Until the late third century AD, Palmyrenes spoke a dialect of Aramaic and used the Palmyrene alphabet. Palmyra's society was a mixture of the different peoples inhabiting the city, [59] [60] which is seen in Aramaic, Arabic and Amorite clan names. The scarce artifacts found in the city dating to the Bronze Age reveal that, culturally, Palmyra was most affiliated with western Syria. The culture of Persia influenced Palmyrene military tactics, dress and court ceremonies.
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Palmyra had a large agora. Although Palmyrene art was related to that of Greece , it had a distinctive style unique to the middle-Euphrates region. Many surviving funerary busts reached Western museums during the 19th century. Like its art, Palmyra's architecture was influenced by the Greco-Roman style, while preserving local elements best seen in the Temple of Bel.
West of the ancient walls, the Palmyrenes built a number of large-scale funerary monuments which now form the Valley of Tombs, [] a 1-kilometre-long 0. In response to the destruction, on 21 October , Creative Commons started the New Palmyra project, an online repository of three-dimensional models representing the city's monuments; the models were generated from images gathered, and released into the public domain, by the Syrian internet advocate Bassel Khartabil between and Regarding the restoration, the discoverer of Ebla , Paolo Matthiae , stated that: Unfortunately these included important parts, such as the Temple of Bel, while the Arc of Triumph can be rebuilt.
During the Hellenistic period under the Seleucids between and 64 BC , Palmyra became a prosperous settlement owing allegiance to the Seleucid king. Palmyrene trade reached its apex during the second century, [] aided by two factors; the first was a trade route built by Palmyrenes, [18] and protected by garrisons at major locations, including a garrison in Dura-Europos manned in AD.
In the s, Palmyra was assigned to the province of Phoenice , newly created by the Severan dynasty. The rise of the Sasanian Empire in Persia considerably damaged Palmyrene trade. Odaenathus formed an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants against Shapur. In Odaenathus launched a new campaign against Shapur, [] reclaiming the rest of Roman Mesopotamia most importantly, the cities of Nisibis and Carrhae , sacking the Jewish city of Nehardea , [note 22] [] [] and besieging the Persian capital Ctesiphon. Odaenathus was succeeded by his son; the ten-year-old Vaballathus.
Zenobia began her military career in the spring of , during the reign of Claudius Gothicus. The following year, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia. Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of archers, led by Sandarion , as a peacekeeping force. Palmyra was reduced to a village and it largely disappeared from historical records of that period. Palmyra was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate after its capture by the Muslim general Khalid ibn al-Walid , who took the city on his way to Damascus; an day march by his army through the Syrian Desert from Mesopotamia.
Palmyra prospered as part of the Umayyad Caliphate, and its population grew. In a revolt, led by Majza'a ibn al-Kawthar and Umayyad pretender Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani , against the new Abbasid Caliphate swept across Syria; [] the tribes in Palmyra supported the rebels. Abbasid power dwindled during the 10th century, when the empire disintegrated and was divided among a number of vassals.
During the early 12th century Palmyra was ruled by Toghtekin , the Burid atabeg of Damascus, who appointed his nephew governor. Muhanna was forgiven and restored by an-Nasir in ; he remained loyal to the sultan until his death in , when he was succeeded by his son.
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Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire in , [] and Palmyra was a center of an administrative district sanjak. As Palmyra gained importance to French efforts to pacify the Syrian Desert , a base was constructed in the village near the Temple of Bel in As a result of the Syrian Civil War , Palmyra experienced widespread looting and damage by combatants.
On 13 May , ISIL launched an attack on the modern town of Tadmur , sparking fears that the iconoclastic group would destroy the adjacent ancient site of Palmyra. Syrian government forces supported by Russian airstrikes recaptured Palmyra on 27 March after intense fighting against ISIL fighters. From the beginning of its history to the first century AD Palmyra was a petty sheikhdom , [] and by the first century BC a Palmyrene identity began to develop. The Palmyrene council consisted of about six hundred members of the local elite such as the elders or heads of wealthy families or clans , [note 30] [] representing the city's four-quarters.
With the elevation of Palmyra to a colonia around —, the city ceased being subject to Roman provincial governors and taxes. The monarchy continued most civic institutions, [] [] but the duumviri and the council were no longer attested after ; Odaenathus appointed a governor for the city. The strategoi were appointed by the council with the approval of Rome.
Citing the Palmyrenes' combat skills in large, sparsely populated areas, the Romans formed a Palmyrene auxilia to serve in the Imperial Roman army. Palmyra's gods were primarily part of the northwestern Semitic pantheon , with the addition of gods from the Mesopotamian and Arab pantheons. Second in importance after the supreme deity, [] were over sixty ancestral gods of the Palmyrene clans. The deities worshiped in the countryside were depicted as camel or horse riders and bore Arab names.
Although the Palmyrenes worshiped their deities as individuals, some were associated with other gods. The priests of Palmyra were selected from the city's leading families, [] and are recognized in busts through their headdresses which have the shape of a polos adorned with laurel wreath or other tree made of bronze among other elements. In , following his victory over Palmyra, Aurelian dedicated a large temple of Sol Invictus in Rome; [] most scholars consider Aurelian's Sol Invictus to be of Syrian origin, [] either a continuation of emperor Elagabalus cult of Sol Invictus Elagabalus , or Malakbel of Palmyra.
The position of the Palmyrene deity as Aurelian's Sol Invictus is inferred from a passage by Zosimus reading: Aurelian embellished with votive gifts from Palmyra, setting up statues of Helios and Bel". Malakbel, Yarhibol and Shamash , hence the identification of the Palmyrene Helios appearing in Zosimus' work with Malakbel. Palmyra's economy before and at the beginning of the Roman period was based on agriculture, pastoralism, trade, [18] and serving as a rest station for the caravans which sporadically crossed the desert. Smith II suggests most land in Palmyra was owned by the city, which collected grazing taxes.
After Palmyra's destruction in , it became a market for villagers and nomads from the surrounding area. If the Laghman inscription in Afghanistan is referring to Palmyra, then the city's role in Central Asian overland trade was prominent as early as the third century BC. Since Palmyra was not on the main trading route which followed the Euphrates , [18] the Palmyrenes secured the desert route passing their city. The caravan trade depended on patrons and merchants. Palmyra was visited by travelers such as Pietro Della Valle between and , Jean-Baptiste Tavernier in and many Swedish and German explorers.
Matthews as "one of the most important single items of evidence for the economic life of any part of the Roman Empire". Palmyra's first excavations were conducted in by Otto Puchstein and in by Theodor Wiegand. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the ancient city of Palmyra. For the modern city, also known as Tadmur, see Palmyra modern. For other uses, see Palmyra disambiguation. For the exoplanet of the same name, see Tadmor planet. Ancient city in Homs Governorate, Syria. Palmyrene dialect and Palmyrene alphabet. Interior of the Tower of Elahbel , in Camp of Diocletian and Roman Theatre at Palmyra.
Bel's temple entrance arch remains after the destruction of the cella. Digital reconstruction of the Temple of Bel New Palmyra project. List of Palmyrene monarchs. Palmyra offensive May , Palmyra offensive March , Palmyra offensive December , and Palmyra offensive Palmyra portal Ancient Near East portal Syria portal. R is the common root for the words that designate palm dates in Arabic , Hebrew , Ge'ez and other Semitic languages. The Phyles were united by their citizenship instead of origin.
The historian also rejected the reading of Tdmr and Trmd as referring to a city; in the view of Mukherjee, the name, whether Tdmr or Trmd refers to the rock on which the inscription was carved itself. Seyrig concluded that it is futile to identify the king as the title Epiphanes was borne by many Seleucid kings, the last of them, Antiochus XII , died in 82 BC.
Even then, according to Seyrig, the date is too high for the form of the letters. Seyrig suggested a king of Commagene or, more likely, a Parthian king. However, other dates have been suggested ranging from as early as Pompey 's era to as late as Vespasian 's reign.
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In addition to the fact that Palmyra and Petra traded in different articles, hence the annexation of Petra might have not had a real effect on Palmyra's trade. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler and was assassinated during the same assassination incident that took the life of Odaenathus and it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title. Addison, Charles Greenstreet A Journey to Palmyra: Collected Essays to Remember Delbert R.
Imperial Rome AD to Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. Baghdadi, George 17 May Retrieved 2 December Ball, Warwick []. Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Phoenicians, Arabs, and the Discovery of Europe. Asia in Europe and the making of the West. Barnard, Anne; Saad, Hwaida 31 August The New York Times. Retrieved 12 December Beattie, Andrew; Pepper, Timothy The Rough Guide to Syria 2 ed. Kirk; Haeri, Niloofar Structuralist Studies in Arabic Linguistics: Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics.
Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead: Ancient Spices of Southern Arabia and Judea". Benzel, Kim; Graff, Sarah B. Art of the Ancient Near East: A Resource for Educators. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Beyer, Klaus []. Translated by Healey, John F. The Age of the Soldier Emperors: A Three Thousand Year History. Hellenistic and Roman Greece as a Sociolinguistic Area. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory Series.
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A Guide revised ed. Busta, Hallie 23 October The Journal of the American Institute of Architects. Roman Syria and the Near East. The British Museum Press. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean.
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A Medieval Fortress Reinterpreted". Many Voices, One Vision: Carissimo, Justin 4 July Retrieved 4 March Cave, Terry []. British and Colonial Regiments. Translated by von Hammer-Purgstall, Freiherr. Politics of Archaeology in the Ottoman Empire. University of Texas Press. In Choueiri, Youssef M. A Companion to the History of the Middle East. Chapot, Victor []. Ogden, Charles Kay, ed. The History of Civilization. Translated by Parker, Edward Adams.
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Charnock, Richard Stephen A Derivative Dictionary of Geographical Names. Nicolas, suivi en addenda de quelques-unes d'entre elles en texte original turc. Les origines magico-religieuses, Les dictons. Traduit du persan par J. Non remboursable et utilisable en 1 fois. Nous nous en chargeons. You want to accompany your gift with a small card? You can create your own dedication on our card: We'll print it and will slide into your shipment.
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