Only one can be right. Kostan sits upon a splintering throne. Savra huddles in a makeshift cell, awaiting the judgment of those she betrayed. The land grows dark with the blood of Prov and Atal alike. But beyond the human struggles, a graver threat looms Carrie Summers Narrated by: Annie Ellicott, Jeff Hays Length: Annie Ellicott , Jeff Hays Series: Stonehaven League , Book 1 Length: Add to Cart failed.
Please try again later. Add to Wish List failed. Remove from wishlist failed. Adding to library failed. Free with day Trial. Stonehaven League , Book 2 Length: Shadowbound Shattering of the Nocturnai, Book 2 By: Shattering of the Nocturnai , Book 2 Length: Nightforged Shattering of the Nocturnai, Book 1 By: Shattering of the Nocturnai , Book 1 Length: Cassandra Campbell, Kirby Heyborne Length: Cassandra Campbell , Kirby Heyborne Series: The Broken Lands , Book 1 Length: Darkborn Shattering of the Nocturnai, Book 4 By: Shattering of the Nocturnai , Book 4 Length: Duskwoven Shattering of the Nocturnai, Book 3 By: Shattering of the Nocturnai , Book 3 Length: The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards.
The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him, in August Although "defeat" often implies an unwanted loss in battle, much of the Inca elite "actually welcomed the Spanish invaders as liberators and willingly settled down with them to share rule of Andean farmers and miners.
The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro , attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in , but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State , where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them.
After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement. The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia , smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system.
Smallpox was only the first epidemic. The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4—37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to 14 million. In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus , knowledge of how to read them was lost as almost all fell into disuse and disintegrated over time or were destroyed by the Spaniards. The main form of communication and record-keeping in the empire were quipus, ceramics , textiles and various dialects of Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire.
While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, including central Peru, for several centuries prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization , the dialect of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco an early form of "Southern Quechua" originally named Qhapaq Runasimi, or 'the great language of the people' , or what some historians define as the Cusco dialect. The language imposed by the Incas diverted from its original phonetics as some societies formed their own regional varieties. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come directly from the Incas, who were just a part of the reason for Quechua's diversity.
The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct from the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these dialects of Quechua had a similar linguistic structure, they differed according to the region in which they were spoken. Although many of the societies within the empire spoke or learned to speak Quechua, others continued to speak their original languages, such as Aymara , which remains in use in contemporary Bolivia, where it is the primary indigenous language and in various regions surrounding Bolivia.
The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus varied. The Inca's impact outlasted their empire, as the Spanish continued the use of Quechua. The Incas were not known to develop a written form of communication; however, they visually recorded narratives through paintings on vases and cups qirus.
Researchers have speculated that toqapu patterns could have served as a form of written communication e. Most families did not invest very much into their child until they reached the age of two, or most of the times three years old. This ceremony was called the rutuchikuy ritual. During this ceremony the family would invite all relatives to their house for food and dance and then each member of the family would receive a lock of hair from the young child. The next important ritual was to celebrate the maturity of child.
Unlike the previous ritual ceremony, the celebration of maturity was to signify the child's sexual potency. In the western world this ceremony would be known as a celebration of puberty, however for the Incas it was called warachikuy for boys and qikuchikuy for girls. The warachikuy ceremony included dancing, fasting, tasks to show their strength, and family ceremonies. The boy would also be given new clothes and taught how to act as an unmarried man.
On the other hand, the girls ceremony qikuchikuy signified the onset of menstruation, therefore the girl would go into the forest alone and not return until the bleeding had ended. In the forest she would fast, and upon arrival the girl would be given a new name, adult clothing, and advice. This 'folly' stage of life was important because this was the time the young adults could have sex without having to be a parent.
Between the ages 20—30 the young adults were "ripe for serious thought and labor".
The young adults only reached their 'full potential' once they were married. In the end, the male and female terms describe the individuals loss of sexual vitality and humanity. Specifically, the decrepitude stage signifies the loss of their mental well being and further physical dystrophy. In the Incan Empire, the age of marriage differed for men and women; men typically married at the age of 20, while women usually got married around 4 years earlier at the age of Once married, the women were expected to cook, collect food and watch over the children and livestock.
Once the marriage was final, the only way the two could be divorced was if they did not have a child together. A family was considered disadvantaged if there was not a married couple at the center because everyday life centered around the balance of male and female tasks [43]. In the eyes of the Inca, male and female roles were considered equal.
The "indigenous cultures saw the two genders as complementary parts of a whole. Within the domestic sphere, women were known as the weavers. Women's everyday tasks included: Men on the other hand, "weeded, plowed, participated in combat, helped in the harvest, carried firewood, built houses, herded llama and alpaca, and spun and wove when necessary" [44].
On looking Spaniards did not understand the complementary nature of men and women roles within the Inca culture and believed women were treated like slaves [45]. However, Inca women did not view themselves as slaves, nor did they do their job for the man. The women completed their daily tasks for the improvement of her household and community, to ensure her family would survive [44]. Furthermore, women were allowed to own land and herds because inheritance was passed down from both the mother's and father's side of the family [46].
Kinship within the Inca society followed a parallel line of descent. In other words, women ascended from women and men ascended from men. Due to the parallel descent, women had access to land and other necessities through her mother, and communities flourished because of the environmental social ties among women [44]. Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records.
The Inca believed in reincarnation. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like an earthly paradise with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains. It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world.
Those who obeyed the Inca moral code — ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy — "went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth". The Incas made human sacrifices. As many as 4, servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in These sacrifices were known as qhapaq hucha.
Carrie Summers
The Incas were polytheists who worshipped many gods. The Inca Empire employed central planning. The Inca Empire traded with outside regions, although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy. The economy rested on the material foundations of the vertical archipelago , a system of ecological complementarity in accessing resources [56] and the cultural foundation of ayni , or reciprocal exchange. The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion.
The Willaq Umu or Chief Priest was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, who placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister.
He was "son of the sun," and his people the intip churin , or "children of the sun," and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically important festivals, notably during the Inti Raymi , or "Sunfest" attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics and the general population of Cusco beginning on the June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca.
Moreover, Cusco was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines and geographic center of the Four Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega called it "the navel of the universe". The Inca Empire was a federalist system consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters, or suyu: The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cusco. These suyu were likely created around during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent.
At the time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes. Cusco was likely not organized as a wamani , or province. Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district , like Washington, DC or Mexico City.
The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cusco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu , a term of esteem used for men of high status and for venerated mountains. Both Cusco as a district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions.
As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani. However, colonial records allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani , with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on the coast.
The most populous suyu was Chinchaysuyu, which encompassed the former Chimu empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, it extended through much of modern Ecuador and into modern Colombia. The largest suyu by area was Qullasuyu, named after the Aymara -speaking Qulla people. It encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, reaching Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in Central Chile.
The second smallest suyu , Antisuyu, was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes. Its name is the root of the word "Andes. Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu , located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into the highlands towards Cusco. The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws. Customs, expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior. The state had legal force, such as through tokoyrikoq lit. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relative to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence.
Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure, such as exact duties and functions of government positions. But the basic structure can be broadly described. The top was the Sapa Inca.
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Below that may have been the Willaq Umu , literally the "priest who recounts", the High Priest of the Sun. This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of the empire, both within Cusco and within the Quarters hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna. While provincial bureaucracy and government varied greatly, the basic organization was decimal.
Each unit of more than tax-payers were headed by a kuraka , while smaller units were headed by a kamayuq , a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary and typically served for life, the position of a kuraka in the hierarchy was subject to change based on the privileges of superiors in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka could be appointed to the position by a waranqa kuraka. Furthermore, one kuraka in each decimal level could serve as the head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that a pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka , in effect directly responsible for one unit of tax-payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units.
Architecture was the most important of the Incan arts, with textiles reflecting architectural motifs.
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The most notable example is Machu Picchu , which was constructed by Inca engineers. The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. These constructs have survived for centuries, with no use of mortar to sustain them.
This process was first used on a large scale by the Pucara c. AD — in present-day Bolivia. The rocks were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable, despite the ongoing challenge of earthquakes and volcanic activity.
Physical measures used by the Inca were based on human body parts. Units included fingers, the distance from thumb to forefinger, palms, cubits and wingspans. The most basic distance unit was thatkiy or thatki , or one pace. The next largest unit was reported by Cobo to be the topo or tupu , measuring 6, thatkiy s, or about 7. It seems likely that distance was often interpreted as one day's walk; the distance between tambo way-stations varies widely in terms of distance, but far less in terms of time to walk that distance. Inca calendars were strongly tied to astronomy.
Inca astronomers understood equinoxes , solstices and zenith passages, along with the Venus cycle. They could not, however, predict eclipses. The Inca calendar was essentially lunisolar , as two calendars were maintained in parallel, one solar and one lunar. As 12 lunar months fall 11 days short of a full day solar year, those in charge of the calendar had to adjust every winter solstice.
Each lunar month was marked with festivals and rituals. Similarly, months were not grouped into seasons. Time during a day was not measured in hours or minutes, but in terms of how far the sun had travelled or in how long it had taken to perform a task.
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The sophistication of Inca administration, calendrics and engineering required facility with numbers. Numerical information was stored in the knots of quipu strings, allowing for compact storage of large numbers. It is likely that Inca mathematics at least allowed division of integers into integers or fractions and multiplication of integers and fractions. These officials were called quipo camayos. Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, felines popular in the Chavin culture and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics.
In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including the smelting of metals, relationships and scenes of tribal warfare. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or "aryballos". The Inca recorded information on assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu , although they can no longer be decoded.
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Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Quipus are also believed to record history and literature. The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. Many skull surgeries performed by Inca surgeons were successful.
Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but were mostly used for religious and health purposes. Coca leaves were also used as an anaesthetic during surgeries. The Inca army was the most powerful at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier. Every able bodied male Inca of fighting age had to take part in war in some capacity at least once and to prepare for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire reached its largest size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war.
The Incas had no iron or steel and their weapons were not much more effective than those of their opponents. They went into battle with drums beating and trumpets blowing. Roads allowed quick movement on foot for the Inca army and shelters called tambo and storage silos called qullqas were built one day's travelling distance from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies and possibly shelter ready as they traveled.
Chronicles and references from the 16th and 17th centuries support the idea of a banner.
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However, it represented the Inca emperor , not the empire. The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool cloth, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow and two parallel snakes along the width with the tassel as a crown, which each king used to add for a badge or blazon those preferred, like a lion, an eagle and other figures.
In modern times the rainbow flag has been wrongly associated with the Tawantinsuyu and displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage by some groups in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco also flies the Rainbow Flag, but as an official flag of the city.
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However, according to Peruvian historiography, the Inca Empire never had a flag. In the Pre-Hispanic Andean World there did not exist the concept of a flag, it did not belong to their historic context". Incas were able to adapt to their high-altitude living through successful acclimatization, which is characterized by increasing oxygen supply to the blood tissues. For the native Inca living in the Andean highlands, this was achieved through the development of a larger lung capacity, and an increase in red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentration, and capillary beds.
Compared to other humans, the Incas had slower heart rates, almost one-third larger lung capacity, about 2 L 4 pints more blood volume and double the amount of hemoglobin , which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. While the Conquistadors may have been slightly taller, the Inca had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For a general view of Inca civilization, people and culture, see Andean civilizations. For other uses, see Inca disambiguation. Supply on Command versus Supply and Demand. Inca society and Inca education. Religion in the Inca Empire and Inca mythology. Incan agriculture , Vertical archipelago , Mit'a , and Qullqa. Government of the Inca Empire. We can assure your majesty that it is so beautiful and has such fine buildings that it would even be remarkable in Spain.