Yo muero hoy: Las revueltas en el mundo árabe (Spanish Edition)

Juan y Josd , Sts. The following, therefore, are more especially found after the substantive limited by them, unless the language is poetic or expansive: Proper adjectives, or those derived from geo- graphical, personal, political, and scientific names: I the plains of Tartessus. The Adjective, 63 c. I the victorious people. In general, long adjectives, unless emphatic or in tensive: When a plural substantive is limited by two or more adjectives in the singular, the latter must stand after the noun: They are a part of the national type.

Some adjectives have distinct significations, ac- cording to their position with respect of the noun: Some adjectives precede or follow the noun with little or no difference of signification: So the omes or hombres buenos of the mediaeval C6rtes were select men, from this property qualification. They represented the third estate in assembly with the prelates and nobles. The Adjective, 65 un pequefio libro, una bonita casa, un hermoso regalo, un breve discurso, un triste dia, un libro pequefio, una casa bonita, un regalo hermoso, un discurso breve, un dia triste.

Adjectives in Spanish have the three usual degrees of comparison ; namely, the Positive, Com parative, and Superlative, each of which is varied according to gender and number: Optimo and pisimo answer a question, thus: How was the play f — Very poor. Most parts of speech may be placed in relations of comparison by the use of certain adverbs and adjec- tives constituting correlative formulae.

In the poetic style, the second member of the same formula may be replaced by cual, but the noun following, in that case rejects the article: The comparative adverb que is replaced, — a. By de lo que than what when the second part of the comparison contains a verb: By de, before numerals, provided the sentence be affirmative ; if it be negative, the resumption of que is quite general, but not universal: I haven't more than three either, without having fewer than four country-seats.

From the above tables , it appears: The SuperlatlTe "Degree, As already seen , the superlative of adjec- tives is of two kinds, — relative and absolute. The relative superlative is translated by most or -est, and expresses not only superiority and inferiority to any other quality or object, but also to all other qualities or objects, declared or implied.

The absolute superlative, translated by very, and occasionally by most, -est, expresses quality or quantity in a very high degree, but without comparison. When the noun is accompanied by the definite article or a possessive adjective, the superlative may follow it without an article. This is especially the case when the adjective preferably stands after the noun in the positive: Except when the noun with which the adjective agrees is In apposition with some other term, or when the article is found with the noun in an indefinite sense ; in the latter case it is customary to use a partitive genitive or the absolute superlative: The relative superlative assumes the article when it stands in the predicate after the verb to be or its equivalents, and agrees with the subject of the verb: The relative superlative is, from its very struc- ture, a definite comparative as well.

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Thus, in the examples: He is more learned than any other member of the Academy ; she was less amiable than any other lady at the conversa- zione. The relative superlative is often expressed in Spanish by the formal comparative: When two objects, persons, or qualities are compared, the formal superlative is really a compara- tive, and must be so translated: If the past participle has also the signification of a mere adjective, its comparative and superlative are rendered as usual: Instruido may be translated by instructed or by learn- edy and its degrees of comparison would be rendered accordingly: The prepositions in, at, of, after a relative super- lative, are generally expressed in Spanish by de: La casa mds hermosa en la cuidad; a sentence no Spaniard would write.

The absolute superlative is formed by affixing to the stem of the positive the variable ending -isimo: I have a great many books. The absolute superlative is also formed by asso ciating with the simple adjective adverbs like may, bien, very; harto, bastante, considerably, quite; simia- mente, exceedingly ; ezcesivamente, extremely, etc.

The affix -isimo is applied to the pure stem of the adjective agreeably to the following laws: I atroz, atroc-fsimo, very shocking. By changing the termination -ble into -bil: Viejo, oldy always maintains the diph- thong in the superlative viejisimo ; while the derivative vejez, old agCy rejects it. La Novisima Recopilacion, the latest compilation; i. A few superlatives in -isimo are constructed on Latin stems: Some few adjectives form their absolute super- latives by attaching 'Timo to the Latin base in er: The earliest record of it that I remember is in the Diferencias de libros q ay en el vniuerso, by Alexo Vanegas de Busto, Toledo, , f.

Ixxxvi, and Catdlogo de Autoridades, Madrid, , p. The superlative ab6rrimo, very productive, wants the positive and comparative Lat. The adjectives ttcil, easy, probable ; dificil, dif- ficult, not probable, have the superlatives facillsimo, facilimo; dificilisitno and dificilimo. The following comparatives and superlatives in form, derived from the Latin, have mostly lost their primitive force as such, and may be treated as adjec- tives, occasionally with special significations: These forms often serve as simple adjectives to build true comparatives and superlatives: I Diet, of the Acad,, ed.

The superlative absolute is often merely inten- sive: Of the two forms comprised under the denomi- nation of superlative absolute, that in -isimo is the stronger: The intensive prefix re Lat. Its use is now popular or vulgar: The cardinal numbers are those which answer the question, How many? Archaic forms are docientOB and trecientCMk They are heard, however, at the present day in current language, but are not met with in approved modern literature.

Incorrect conversational forms are siete- cientOB and nuevecientOB. See , d, Remark. As numeral adjectives, ciento and mil cannot assume un like the substantives millon and cuento: Native estimates of population are made in rural districts by vecinos, heads of families; in towns, by almas, souls; and by government, for foreign convenience, by habitantes, inhabitants.

The traditional method is, however, by vecinos. I d vdntidnco pesetas miliar. Tens of hundreds cannot be used in Spanish for counting from one thousand upwards, but mil must always introduce the denomination: For the contracts of primer and tercero, see Fractional numbers used in mathematical calcu- lations, though substantives, belong here. They do not generally correspond with the ordinals, as in English ; Numerals. A un diez y seis avo dieciseis avo. A un diez y ocho avo. A un diez y nueve avo. A un veintavo veinte avo. A un veintiun avo, etc.

A un trezavo trece avo. I gave him one-half, half an hour, half a day. Multiplicatives answer the question, How many fold? The Spaniards use also the Greek rerapros, fourth, corrupted into tdtara, with a few words: Collectives or numeral substantives are: Sea-biscuit in Spanish is galleta, " hard-tack," kneaded with rancid olive-oil, and used in the marine as well as the merchant service.

Niuneral Adverbs answer the questions, How many times? Distributives which answer likewise the ques- tion, How often? I have no time. I shall pay at the expiration of in short instalments. The personal pronouns in the nominative are: To these may be added se as the reflexive and reciprocal substitute of pronouns of the third person, in all cases except the nominative.

Ello relates only to a thought, or a phrase to which gender cannot be attributed: Nosotros and vosotros are compounds of nos and vos with the plural indefinite pronoun otros, -as, others ; and hence the variation of gender, unknown to the other European languages, in the first and second persons. The appendix otros served originally to ex- pand or amplify the force of we and yoUy but it added nothing to the signification, as the French autres in vous autres does.

The compound first appeared in the latter half of the fifteenth century. It is also met with in certain quaint devotional formulae: They abound, however, in the Royal Edicts from , and in the Chronicle of Spain, by Diego de Valera Seville; 14S2 , though generally written throughout in two words, nos otros, vos otros. In the sixteenth century, under the expansive influences of the reigns of the Catholic sovereigns and the Emperor Charles V. The relative situation of such words at the present day is as follows: Vos, yoUy is now always limited to one person, male or female, although joined to the second person plural of verbs.

It is, therefore, heard at public sessions of the Acade- mies, at the Athenaeum, the churches, and the theatre, by the accustomed or authorized speakers. But if, at the play, the manager come forth to make an announce- ment or offer an apology, he would use ustedes. Vosotros supposes the confidence and, to a certain degree, the sympathy of the audience. It is the uni- versal address of society, and the only one the foreigner need ever employ.

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Being considered to be of the third person, it requires the verb, pronoun-object, and pos- sessive adjective, to be likewise in that person, although translated into English by the second person. At the present day in Spain it is either written out in full, or abbreviated into V. The Re- gents of the kingdom in royal minorities have the corporate title of Majestady like the king whom they represent ; and the municipal councils that of seftoria, or lordship.

Title of address is el tratamiento ; as, el tratamiento de alteza, tAs address of highness. The personal pronoun admits of a fuller inflec- tion than any other part of speech, save the verb. The dative and accusative cases have two forms: The association of both the conjunctive and disjunctive forms to the same verb constitutes the redundant or pleonastic construction, very common in Spanish: I say to you to him to you.

I esteem you them your graces. Personal Pronouns, 95 The personal pronouns axe inflected as follows: OS — a vosotros-as, to you, to yourselves. OS — a vosctros-as, you. OS — a vos, to you, to yourself P. OS — a vos, you, yourself. Third Person — Masculine. Tliird Person — Feminine. A, lo, it, that, so. ReflexiTe Sabstitute of Third Person. The subject nominative of the personal pronoun is usually suppressed, unless required on account of emphasis, contrast, ambiguity, or distinctness: Sometimes its use is merely rhetorical: I have said in my speeches. Personal Pronouns, 97 The subject of an impersonal verb is not ex- pressed: When, in English, the pronoun-subject has a substantive in apposition with it that limits or defines it, in Spanish the substantive, accompanied by the definite article, replaces the pronoun as the subject of the verb, and the latter is put in the person and number appropriate to the suppressed pronoun: Dios, es no osar nadie avisaros.

If the pronoun and apposition are both expressed, the latter must always retain the definite article: The dative is not only translated by tOy but also by fovy from with the idea of taking away , and very often it imparts to a following definite article the meaning of a possessive adjective: In English, the signs of the dative fOy for, front are often suppressed: Personal Pronouns, 99 19a In Spanish, the dative, with another pronoun- object, is very frequently superfluous, and may be considered as an expletive: Since the datives le and les are common to both genders, some writers improperly employ the accusa- tives la and las for these feminines: I lend them men the book.

I lend them women the pen. The accusative case is governed directly by the verb: The use of les for los is frequently met with, but is discouraged by the Academy. In the pleonastic construction with nstedes, however, it is admissible: I looked for you, I sought you.

I knew them at once. I shall buy tickets if there are if there were some patriotic so- ciety as there are political ones. I want some, a merry Christmas to you! I have, and a pressing one. Lo, accusative of ello, represents a phrase, an idea, to which gender cannot be assigned: When lo stands in the predicate of the verb to be, and relates to an adjective, it is equivalent to so: Ids ladrones son muy honrados, pero tambien lo son los ver- dugos.

Lord, b it I? The prepositional case is that form of the pronoun before which all prepositions must stand. It is the same as the nominative in form, save in mi, ti, and si: I02 Form and Inflection. By exception, the preposition con, withy unites as one word to the forms -migo, -tigo, -sigo — the ''go'' being a forgotten remnant of the Latin cum in mecunty tecum, secum: The adverb alii, there, in ity is often used instead of a pronoun in the prepositional case: The conjunctive forms of the dative and accusa- tive cases regularly stand before the finite verb ; but to infinitives, gerunds, and imperatives conjugated affirmatively, they are appended as one word: I tell thee, to tell thee, telling thee, tell thou me.

Objective pronouns may, however, be appended to the finite verb when it begins a sentence, unless negative: Personal Pronouns, If an infinitive depend on a verb or on another infinitive, the pronoun may stand before the verb or be attached to either infinitive: I am going to look for them, without asking them again re- turning to ask them. If the verb or infinitive do not admit an object, the pronoun attaches to the word that governs it ac- cording to the primary rule: When the gerund is in the progressive form of the verb with estar, to be; ir, to go ; venir, to come; andar, to go, the object-pronoun may attach to it, or stand before the verb ; but the latter disposition is preferable: I am looking for them, we are getting to understand you.

The first and second persons plural of the im- perative mode lose the s and the d of the respective endings when the reflexives nos and os are attached to them: There are some devia- tions in practice from them which the student is advised not to imi- tate, since their application would be more or less quaint' and inelegant, or dependent on a wide experience of the language at all epochs.

The disjunctive or prepositional form of the dative and accusative cases is used when the verb, from its intransitive nature or signification, does not in Spanish admit an object without a preposition: It is likewise used with all kinds of verbs in emphatic, intensive, and antithetic utterances, in excla- mations, and in answer to a question without the verb: Lord, to Thee I call!

When there are two verbs, the one of which is intransitive and the other transitive, directly or indi- rectly, each may have its appropriate regimen: Some verbs require the disjunctive with one signification and the conjunctive with another: The conjunctive and disjunctive pronouns may be associated to the same verb, not merely to give emphasis, but also to amplify the phrase. Either pronoun may come first, but greater intensity is often secured when precedence is given to the disjunctive: Any substantive or appositive may replace the disjunctive pronoun, preserving the redundant con- struction with the conjunctive: A similar redundant construction obtains with the conjunctive pronoun and a substantive in the accusative: To avoid the disagreeable repetition of a formal address, usted as subject may be given once, and left understood afterward: As object, usted may be represented by its pronominal substitutes: I return you the book and ask you for another.

I come to see you and to say to I hear you, but I do not see you. I looked for you, but I did not find you. I tell you and I repeat it. The oblique cases of usted may replace the possessive adjective: In the compound tenses it can never separate the auxiliary and participle, but takes its place before or after both: I hope you will do us the favor of remaining with us.

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The substitutes of tisted follow the general law of position laid down for conjunctive pronouns: I shall tell you. I look for you. The pronouns of the first and second persons have, in the oblique cases, a reflexive meaning when they refer to the same person as the subject: Hence, each gender employs the common substitute Be to express reflexive or reciprocal action on the subject: The reflexive se is very generally omitted in translation as superfluous in English: Se Stands in the dative to replace a possessive adjective with a determinative object: The dative of interest is frequently met with in Spanish, and sometimes has the force of an expletive: I lose fewer cases fewer cases Se has very often an adverbial force, or it receives the action of a transitive verb, leaving it practically intransitive: When a verb governs two conjunctive pronouns, the dative precedes the accusative, except only the reflexive se, which always stands first, whichever be its case: I offer them to you.

I lend it to her. Each should, therefore, be kept functionally distinct, although they are constantly interchanging with apparent identity: The following table presents examples of two conjunctive pronouns, the first of which is in the dative case, and the second in the accusative. Attached to the Verb. OS las, -oslas, them.

In the following table the first pronoun is the reflexive in the accusative case, and the second a con- junctive in the dative: The position of two objective pronouns, with respect of the governing verb, follows the same laws as that of the simple objective: I imagine, imagine or fancy it. I have told it to that gentleman, they assured me so. Every pronoun-subject may be intensified by adding to it, in the proper gender and number, the adjective misino, a, self; mismos, as, selves: In the oblique cases of the personal pronoun, mismo or propio may be used, but only with the disjunctive or prepositional forms: Mismo may be added to nouns with the reflexive meanings of the third person: After adverbs of time and place, mismo is inva- riable and signifies this or that very, or its force may be rendered by the tone of voice: Ii6 Form and Inflection, Possessive Adjectives and Rronouns.

Possessive adjectives and pronouns are varied and inflected like any adjective in o. Unlike the English usage, they agree in gender and number with the object possessed, and not with the person or thing possessing. The conjunctives lose their final syllable, and consequently their gender distinction, except in the first and second persons plural, in which both forms are identical. They are varied as fol- lows: The conjunctive forms of the possessive adjec- tive regularly stand before the nouns they qualify when no particular emphasis is intended: Ii8 Form and Inflection. Your is also expressed by su, sus, when the address is carried on by us ted ; otherwise vuestro, a, which corresponds to vos, vosotros, as.

The absolute possessive adjectives of the first person are regularly employed in direct address the vocative case , but without the definite article: But if an ordinary adjective, or past participle used as an adjective, accompany the direct address, either the conjunctive or the absolute forms may be used: The definite article, with all absolute forms, is suppressed in certain phrases: We would say simply " gentlemen.

The adjective then assumes the idiomatic pronominal signification of mine, of thine, of his, etc. I shall give you an old one of mine. I spoke to him of a matter of yours. The same rule obtains when the noun is in the predicate after the verb to be, or its equivalent: The conjunctive possessive adjectives have the same pronominal signification as the absolute ones do Possessive Adjectives, with indeterminate expressions, when the former stand between a demonstrative and a noun: Instead of the possessive adjective, the dative of the personal pronoun, or of usted, must be used with the verb, and the definite article with the noun, when reference is made to parts of the body or articles of dress: I kiss your hand the h.

I have cut my finger. If there can be no possible doubt as to the person referred to, the article will suffice without the dative: Possessive pronouns are regularly accompanied by the definite article, both agreeing in gender and number with the object possessed, and not with the person or thing possessing: The possessive pronouns are varied as follows: Each one of these forms is inflected like any- adjective with the definite article: Possessive Pronouns, su libro es semejante al mio, tus costumbres son distintas de las nuestras, mi heredad linda con la de usted, his book is similar to mine, thy habits are different from ours, my property joins yours.

In the predicate suyo may be replaced by the genitive of the personal pronoun when ambiguity re- quires it: The demonstratives are determinative adjectives with substantive and pronominal functions. They agree in gender and number with the noun they limit, except the neuter forms which are substantives by nature. They are inflected by the aid of the case prepositions, and varied as follows: To these may be added: Likewise the archaic forms aqueste, aquese, for este, ese, this, that.

In correspondence, the words ciadad, city, and plaza, market, are usually suppressed with esta and esa after the preposition en, in; en esta is therefore ren- dered here, and en esa, there or with you: When speaking of the same place, city, etc. This law is seldom violated by correct writers. Within the limit of personal experience, relative distances or events are expressed the same way: Carnival is a general privilege permitted to any respectable person to run madly about the blessed streets with a tail long- er than Lucifer's, and a piece of pasteboard attached to his face, playing his pranks be- fore everybody.

The neuter forms esto, esOy aquelloy mean this thingy that thing; thus: The definite article is used as a demonstrative pronoun, assuming the gender and number of the noun it replaces: My book and my brother's, his house and his father's, etc. Observe that the order in Spanish is regularly the reverse of the English, although Mesonero Romanos writes: In the Lazarillo de Tdrmes we find: Phrases like these and such as tomar las de Villadiego, averigUelo Vargas, etc.

Tomar las calgas de Villadiego, to catch up Villadiego' s small clothes, redolent of some whilom scandal from which Villadiego escaped without stopping to arrange his toilet, is first given in the Celestina , then in Blasco de Garay , in Perez del Castillo , in Cipriano de Valera , in Percivale's Spanish- English Dictionary London, , in that of Minsheu , in Cervdntes , Covarrubias , Quevedo , and the Spanish Academy's Die- tionary , with the ellipse calzas supplied.

Relative Pronouns, I es este el tuyo? The relative pronouns are: Quien is now properly used of persons only. Its nominative is gue, when the antecedent is a word of either gender or number, and quien, el cual, or que when it connects a compound sentence of which each member makes complete sense by itself: See Monsanto and Languellier's Spanish Grammar, p. Relative Pronouns, art. The inflection of quien is as follows: Que relates to persons or things in the nominative or accusative cases only; in the other cases its use is limited to things.

Being invariable in number and gender, its inflection is indicated by prepositions, as follows: Hence the vulgar English constructions, the strike they speak of, the government we are subject tOy the house Hive in, must first be restored to the literary form before rendering into Spanish. The former is frequently left out in Spanish after certain verbs, although the Academy very properly censures the omission: I request that you may not go, etc. El cual and el que are the substitutes of quien and quey and therefore relate to persons or things.

The substitutes must be used when the relative is governed by compound prepositions, or such as are not monosyllables: Lo cual, whichy refers always to an idea, a thought, or a preceding sentence: I lo que debe V. Cuanto and todo cuanto, as much, as many, quite as much — many, often replace the relative expression todos los que, todo lo que, all who, all which, all that, the qtte being absorbed: To the sweetest Of all the maidens That tread the borders Of the pleasant Turia. El que, with its variations la que, los que, las que, is used in the sense of Ac wAo, she who, the one or one who; they who, those who, the ones who gen.

Relating to things, it signifies the one which or that, those which or that, the ones which or that gen. Each member of the relative may be inflected, — the antecedent like the definite article, and the relative proper like quien or que, according to whether persons or things are referred to.

In the oblique cases, however, the antecedent aquel is more common than ely when reference is made to persons ; otherwise, either is employed according to the demonstrative meaning: Instead of el que and aquel que, quien is employed in the same senses, including in itself both the antece- dent and the relative: Qi2i6n is declined like any substantive: Whoscy used interrogatively, is expressed by ciiyo, a, or by de qui6n: I en beneficio de quidn lo hace V.

Qu6 is also employed in exclamations to signify what! ICmSI es la fecha de la carta? I do not know what they are. I40 Form and Inflectiofi. Unlike dlguieny it may be followed by the partitive genitive, expressed or implied, in both genders and numbers: Algnnos and iinos cnantos very exactly render the English some in the emphatic sense of a few: I have some, and first-class, who sells old books?

I have a few rare ones at home. I am somewhat ailing.

Yo muero hoy: Las revueltas en el mundo árabe

Indefinite Pronouns, Remark. Ambos, as, 6otA, is used either as a substantive or an adjective, and of persons or things. We could say with equal propriety: Kara , each, every, is an invariable adjective employed only in the singular, and always stands before the substantive: Cada may stand with a plural substantive only when the latter is preceded by a numeral: When cada is employed substantively or dis- tributively, it associates itself with uno fem.

Every may also be expressed by todos los fem. Indefinite Pronouns, H5 Cosa, a thing fem. I do not want anything else, or care for nothing else. It is used only of persons in the sin- gular, to indicate any one whose name we do not know, or recall, or care to give. I don't know; such a one.

Zutano is explained unsatisfac- torily by Dietz and Mahn, each in his own way. Neither mentions mengano, which, in turn, may be connected with the obsolete Mengo or Mingo, familiar for Domingo, Dominic, or plain "Dick," although I incline to think them alliterations, corresponding in principle to riff-raff, pell-mell, etc.

I know neither this one, that one, nor the other. Mismo, a archaic, mesmoy a, still used in rural districts; low Lat. Before or after the noun, mismo with the definite article means also very or self: I see nothing — I do not see a. Although etymologically feminine, nada is always associated with the absolute form of an adjective, and in that case regularly follows the negative verb: I require nothing onerous.

Instead of nada, the forms ninguna cosa or cosa alguna are constantly met with in the same signification. The former may stand before the verb, or after it with the additional negation, while the latter can only follow a negative verb ; with an adjective only the first form, ninguna cosa, can be used, the adjective agreeing with the feminine cosa: I have nothing good.

Nada, ningima cosa, or cosa algima, may stand after a verb without no, in the signification of anything or aught: In exclamatory or interrogative sentences that involve a negative answer: After verbs that contain in themselves a negative idea: After the prepositions sin, without ; totes de, before; the conjunctions sin que, without that ; totes que, before that: After comparatives and superlatives: Nada is often used elliptically as an exclamation designed to cut off farther remark or discussion, and may be variously rendered by say no more, never mindy welly there: Indefinite Pronouns, No — nada, also means not — at all: I don't like that at all JUeraUy, it does not please me at all.

I do not at all fear death, he is not at all indolent. Like nada, it requires another negative only when it comes after the verb: I do not see any one. I have not seen anybody. In the sixteenth century, it is often replaced by the formula no — hombre sana — nadie: El no maravillarse hombre de nada, for a man to wonder at nothing. See my edition of the Works of Mendoza, Madrid, , p. ISO Form and Inflection, ISI no se ffe V.

I have no book ; no house. After a negative verb, alguno, a, is more ele- gantly employed than ninguno, especially after sin; but it must be associated with a substantive expressed, and always stand after it: If the noun be understood, ninguno alone can be used: The English no, not any, as an adjective, when it is unemphatic, may be simply expressed by a verb made negative by no, followed by a noun without article: To make this construction emphatic, we have only to put ningunoy a, before the noun, or better, algunoy a, after it: It does not admit the indefinite article as in English an-other , but requires the definite article when a distinct person or thing is to be specified: I have others ; I have the others.

I look for others. I don't want the others. I have not seen the others, as for the rest, I say nothing. Propio, a iormGrly prcprio , self, own, may stand after the personal pronouns like mismo, and after the possessive adjectives and pronouns to strengthen their meaning: I would affirm that to any one. Qnien alone, followed by a verb in the indicative or subjunctive, often admits the signification of any one who, especially in the oblique cases: I say it to any one who may care to accept the wager.

As an adjective, it may precede or follow the noun ; but in the latter case, only in the singular: Whatever may also be expressed by sea el que, la que, pi. Without an indefinite article, as an adjective: I do not trust such men. Without an indefinite article, as a neuter substan- tive: I don't believe such a thing. Tal is preceded by the indefinite article only when used with names of persons, and in the sense of one, a certain. With common nouns, cierto, without the article, has the same meaning, a certain. Idioms with tal are: As an adjective, it is followed by the definite article, or other determinative word if the noun requires one: An idiomatic use of todo is found especially with expressions of time, in which is meant some indefinite point within the general period mentioned: Todo, as an adjective, may be followed by the noun directly, in the sense of every in the singular, or all in the plural: As a substantive, todo refers to persons and things, in all genders and in both numbers: In the singular, mostly as a neuter — all, every- thing: In the plural in both genders: I have seen them all.

Finally, todo qualifies relative pronouns, neuter adjectives substantives and adverbs, in the sense of every one, all, quite, thoroughly ; as, todo el que, todo aquel que, every one who ; todos los que, all those who; todos cuantos, todo cuanto, all who or that; todo lo cual, all of which; todo lo que, all that; todo cansado, quite tired; todo lo demds, all the rest pmne caterum , etc. TJno, a, is an adjective, a substantive, and a pronoun, signifying in the singular an or a, one, each other; and in the plural, some, ecu: Uno, as an indefinite numeral, may stand in contrasted clauses, but usually at the present day without the article: As an indefinite pronoun, uno may be followed by the partitive genitive: The plural of uno in this construction is algnnos, as, somey not unos: The singular of alguno may be used thus distributively, but it is vaguer than uno — some one or other of his friends.

UnOf Uy replaces a substantive with or without an adjective, to avoid the repetition of the former: I being without an overcoat, he lent me an old one of his. I paid considerable money. I have expended several dollars on that, several times, a number of times. I was entrusted with several messages.

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Before proceeding to the conjugation of verbs, it is indispensable to give the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb haber. I have a book. I have had a book. Still tener may be occasionally employed as an auxiliary, as well as other verbs: Haber, to have ; stems: The future and conditional indicative are properly compound tenses made up of the endings of the present and imperfect joined to the infinitive. In certain special significations: In the simple tenses, when kaber is followed by the preposition de and the infinitive of some other verb ; it then has the meaning of duty, or refers to futtire action — to be to, to have to, must: In the simple and compound tenses, when followed by que and the infinitive of some other verb.

Haber is The Verb. Lord, in thy presence. As an impersonal verb, haber regularly builds its own compound tenses: The infinitives are dependent on other verbs in some finite form: Hay is a contraction of ha with the now obsolete y Lat. The old Spanish original ha, negative non ha still preserved in Portuguese , has been handed down in the legal phrase for denying a petition: Both these phrases are heard among the lowly in taking leave of one another.

Likewise in the personal verb, in the respectful formula employed in an undertone when a deceased person is referred to. AetiTe Conjugation of the Begolar Verb. Infinitives in -er characterize the Second Conj.

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Infinitives in -ir characterize the Third Conj. All verbs, whether regular, irregular, impersonal, or defective, belong to the conjugation indicated by their infinitive-ending, however much their inflection may differ in other respects from the models of regular verbs. In the regular verb the terminations are applied directly to the unchanged stem, found by suppressing the infinitive-endings: The indicative future and conditional are originally compound forms, consisting of the infinitive joined to the endings of the indicative present and imperfect of the auxiliary verb haber: Thus the proverb in its original form: Present indicative, Present subjunctive, Imperative, Imperfect indicative.

Imperfects subjunctive, Future subjunctive. Conditional of the indicative. Model verb — hablar, to spedk. Model verb — comer, to eat. The graphic accent then here is merely distinctive. Model verb — vivir, to live. The graphic accent in the present century always acute, ' distinguishes otherwise homonymous or identical forms in verbs of the first conjugation: Except the first persons plural of the present indicative and the past definite in the first and third conjugations, wherein no written accent b authorized: Martin Nucio or Nuyts of Antwerp, from gave a new impulse to this branch of orthography ; and in we find the use of accents generalized, especially to mark the fixture tense.

Of the imperative mode, only the second person singular and plural are original persons. All the others are simply persons of the subjunctive present with an optative, desiderative, or a hortative meaning. Observe that habla and hablad and so come, corned; vive, vivid, and all original imperatives cannot be made negative. To render the imperative negative in Spanish, the corresponding subjunctive forms must always be used: I no hables, do not speak, hablad, speak ye.

The other forms being already in the present subjunctive, merely assume the adverb no to render them negative: The d of the participial ending ado is very generally omitted in pronunciation at the present day, not only in Madrid, but throughout Spain, in familiar or social life, not in grave discourse: Not so with ido, however, except among the admirers of the bull-baiting fiatemity. The compound tenses of all Spanish verbs, active and neuter, transitive and intransitive, are at the present day formed by means of the verb kaber only: Anciently they said ; es ido, is gone ; son venidos, are come ; but not at present.

These mutations occur in the following places only: This mutation occurs in the following places only: Imperax carece , carezoay carezcamos, careced , carez- can. Except mecer, to shake, to rock; empecer, to injure; oooer, to boil cuezo, cueza, etc. Hacer, to do, to make, and its compounds, change the radical c into g before a strong vowel hago, haces ; haga, hagas, etc. Verbs in -acer and -ocer come from Latin stems in asc, osc. With verbs in -ucir alone, the z is euphonic: The necessity of all the foregoing consonant- mutations is obviously to maintain in the stem the same sound throughout the conjugation that it has in the infinitive, whatever be the orthography.

Those in final radical ch do not uniformly absorb the vowel i: Spanish verbs may be translated into English in three different ways ; namely: I go Form and Inflection. Conjugation of estar, to be: The present indicative follows sum, est, sumus, sunt ; but in the second person singular, it adopts the future erts eres y2Lnd in the plural, a regularized sutis old Span, sodes, modern sots.

The imperfect indicative derives from eram, eras, etc. Therefore, the Latin esse does not reappear in Spanish, except in the present and imperfect indicative. Ser Uamado, to be called. Kemarks on the Passive. The passive participle is varied like any adjective in 0, and agrees in gender and number with the subject of the verb: When the verb to be, with a past participle, expresses accidental state or situation, it must be translated by estar or one of its substitutes.

The past participle is then considered to be employed as an adjective: Substitutes of estar are, ir and andar, to go; qaedar and quedarse, to remain; encontrarser and hallarse, to find one's self; verse, to see one's self; etc. I was isolated from everybody. Aside from these constructions, the use of ser and estar is to be carefully distinguished: With other words than participles, the radical distinction in the use of ser and estar may be summed up as follows: I am lame, thou art blind, you are rich, I am poor, they are not happy, although pleased for the moment.

The Verb, 20I b, EstoTy on the contrary, denotes an accidental, transitory, situation or state: A reflexive verb is one that is conjugated with a pronoun-object relating to the same person or thing as the subject: Any transitive verb may assume the reflexive form: With the pronominal object in the accusative y provided the verb naturally takes an accusative of the person: I thou assumest to thyself the Remark.

Be compra nna prenda, he buys for himself a garment. Many transitive verbs are made intransitive by assuming the reflexive form: Intransitive verbs often become reflexive with modified significations, the pronominal object frequently assuming an adverbial force: I go, I march. Many verbs have in Spanish the reflexive form only: Many verbs that are reflexive in Spanish are expressed in English by the formal passive, and some by both the reflexive and the passive: When '' I hadpraised myself' etc.

Model verb — fignrarse, to fancy to one's self , to imagine. OS figurais, ye imagine. OS figureis, ye may imagine. Its ordinary position may be best gathered from a few examples: The pronoun-object regularly stands before the finite verb in all conditions of a sentence. In the literary style, however, it may be attached to the verb in the simple tenses, and to the auxiliary in the compound tenses, when the verb begins a phrase ; but in such position of the object, the subject must take its place after the verb or participle: I have made a mistake, he has made a mistake.

The last wards of Fray Luis cU Granada, The reflexive object is regularly attached to the infinitive and gerund, whether the phrase is affirmative or negative ; the pronoun-subject, however, is more often placed after these forms: The first person plural of the imperative sup- presses the s of the verb-ending when the pronominal object is attached to it: The second person plural of the imperative loses its d before the attached pronoun-object: The reflexive verb may be strengthened by the repetition of the pronoun-object in the prepositional case joined to the adjective mismo, a, or propio, a, self: Special Uses of the Reflexive.

OS figurais, or 86 08 figura. OS habeis figurado, or 86 08 ha figurado.

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In Spanish, the formal passive is comparatively little used at the present day, other less cumbersome constructions being better adapted to the genius of that language. In public announcements, the verb to be of the passive is usually omitted in English, while, in Spanish, the reflexive, which always replaces it in such cases, is given in full: The passive voice may also be replaced by the reflexive verb used impersonally: I have been deceived.

The reflexive used impersonally is a substitute of the third person plural active, and is preferred when a vague or indirect reference to persons is desirable. This favorite construction has grown out of the national propensity to equivocation: I am not understood Fr. I am told Fr. So also in the redundant construction: The following examples of passive constructions will serve to illustrate and fix the foregoing rules: S se le engafia, se le ha engafiado.

OS engafiais, se OS engafia, ' son engafiados. OS habeis engafiado, se OS ha engafiado, han sido engafiados. The reciprocal use of the reflexive verb may be strengthened by the term el uno — el otro, fern, la una — la otra ; los unos — los otros, fern, las nnas — las otras ; or uno — otro, etc. I perceive that we two were born for each other. The Verb, The Impersonal Verb. Impersonal verbs are properly such as are employed in the third person singular only.

Impersonal verbs are inflected according to the conjugation indicated by their infinitive, to wit: Nevar, nevando, nevado, to snow. UuevSy U may rain, Uoviera, it might rain. Uovierey it should rain.

Uovleray if it rained. Amanecer, amaneciendo, amanecido, to dawn. Verbs that are naturally impersonal may assume a personal signification and inflection: The Verb, UoTlan palos sobre nosotros, dntes eran amigos ; perohaceun afio que tronaron, blows came down upon us in quick succession, they were formerly good friends ; but they fell out boisterously a year ago. Many personal verbs are temporarily employed in impersonal senses: Such verbs may also be used in the third person plural as personal verbs: A number of verbs are used only in the third persons singular and plural.

Such properly belong to defective verbs: The English impersonal expression variously rendered in Spanish: With adjectives, nouns, and adverbs. To denote the hour, only when that is one or any of its divisions. With all other hours, " it is " must be expressed by son: By estdy to denote accidental state: Virginia Mendoza rated it really liked it Apr 05, Antonio Jarnavic rated it liked it Feb 01, Estela rated it it was amazing Dec 31, Diego Parejo perez rated it really liked it Dec 30, Juan marked it as to-read Oct 12, Rosalba marked it as to-read Jul 05, Yesenia Balay marked it as to-read Jul 18, Laura Mateo marked it as to-read Jul 18, Nora marked it as to-read Aug 07, Esther is currently reading it Aug 28, Maria marked it as to-read Dec 24, Adel marked it as to-read Jan 14, Marta marked it as to-read Feb 03, Yolanda marked it as to-read Apr 08, Esther marked it as to-read Apr 08, Sergio added it Aug 30, Marta Rodriguez marked it as to-read Sep 19, Xavi added it Oct 14, Pakote Lolailo marked it as to-read Nov 12, Carlos marked it as to-read Nov 18, Pedro Eisman marked it as to-read Jan 25, Rodrigo Marambio marked it as to-read May 08, Elena marked it as to-read Sep 03, Lara Hidalgo marked it as to-read Dec 14, Alba D marked it as to-read Jan 23,