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However, I also note how insidious these tendencies can be. The fact that our most primal, violent, and acquisitive predispositions can arise in a religion that is so explicitly pacifistic points to the importance of understanding the designs of Alpha God psychology, and to be watchful for its presence. Yes, there have also been many goddesses across world religions. Like their male counterparts, they often have evolutionary significance and their images reflect earthly projections onto the divine.
Fertility, for instance, is a common focus among goddesses.
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You explain in the book that as populations grew to state levels, the power of the gods grew commensurately with the power needed to regulate greater masses of people. But, why not alpha gods from the beginning if our psychology was already in place? Big men created the big gods, but why was so easy for them to make the change? Why were hunter-gatherers more egalitarian? There is the idea that smaller, hunter-gatherer societies did not need an ethereal dominant male to regulate interactions because the flesh-and-blood ones were so visible.
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As groups grew in size, the need for a much bigger, more powerful dominant male arose to cover more ground, as it were. However, even in hunter-gatherer gods we see evidence of the alpha male fighting for control of power and access to women. Many of the animistic gods that represent things like rain, thunder, or the sun, also took on human characteristics and behaved like men, fighting for sex and power.
This image was probably driven by the wish to see ourselves as by nature non-violent, and by the naturalistic fallacy—that just because something is natural, it must be nice or desirable. Nevertheless, there is relatively less stratification among hunter-gatherers, which probably speaks more to the practical difficulties of amassing power with smaller numbers of people and less accumulated wealth.
You say that dominant male gods are a creation of men. Men wrote the doctrine, designed the laws, etc. But it seems that all over the world women are more religious than men. If religion is a thing made by men for men, how do you explain it? This is a great question. I think that the hyperlinked piece by Zuckerman offers some useful ideas.
I would guess that the difference ties back to our evolved psychology. Evolutionarily, males have a great deal to gain by challenging the existing male power structure, ideally to overthrow it and assume the dominance position. Potential rewards include greater access to females, more offspring, more resources, etc. And so the tendency to reject the authority of other dominant males in certain circumstances was likely selected for, which may in turn make men more likely to reject a dominant male god.
Men are also more prone to risk-taking, which may influence the decision to risk giving up allegiance to a dominant male god, and all his purported protections. But in addition to making doctrine for men, men also made doctrine for women in hopes of favoring male reproductive interests, in part by keeping women subordinated. I also ask in the book whether there is a relationship between power and religiosity — whether having greater power makes one less vulnerable to the doctrines of submission.
In America, those with more wealth a proxy for power tend to be the least religious. And clearly men around the globe typically hold more power than women, even in the most progressive societies. So, another question is, does the power of male privilege make men less vulnerable to religious beliefs based on submission? Is access to education a factor? Likely, it is a confluence of many factors, but the important thing is to keep asking thoughtful questions.
Could we think that one of the functions of religion is to attract women? Are the skills of a religious leader intelligence, empathy… attractive to women?
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This is an interesting hypothesis. There is overwhelming evidence that women are attracted to men of high status. A great deal of this can occur outside of conscious awareness, which indicates just how ancient this preference is—for example, there is research indicating that women can detect social dominance by way of smell, and that they prefer that odor in men.
I also cite a study which found that men higher in the religious hierarchy in Mormon society had more wives and more children.
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I think this collective suicide is one of the crucial events of the twentieth century. To see that ideas go first and life second is really shocking.
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How do you read it from the evolutionary point of view? In evolutionary terms, suicide can be probably seen as a byproduct of other evolutionary mechanisms, for example, depression, which in certain circumstances can increase fitness. However, for obvious reasons i. I am familiar with the social competition hypothesis of Price and it is clear that defeat and depression share clinical and biological features. Could you explain the gist of this chapter? Price and his colleagues do a brilliant job of describing depression as an adaptation designed to help weaker individuals avoid entering into unwinnable competitions with stronger, more dominant individuals.
There are certain submissive behaviors that occur across the animal world, and we can observe those same behaviors in religious submission and depressive sequelae alike.