Quinn traces the Western image of Islam from its earliest days to recent times. It establishes four basic themes around which the image of Islam gravitates throughout history in this portrayal of Islam in literature, art, music, and popular culture. Publisher Synopsis Quinn constucts a strong historical account of the positive and negative interactions between Western civilizations and Islam.
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Linked Data More info about Linked Data. Home About Help Search. Privacy Policy Terms and Conditions. Remember me on this computer. Cancel Forgot your password? English View all editions and formats. Islamic countries -- Relations -- Europe. Montaigne, a tolerant, skeptical Catholic, several times attacked superstition in religion, but did not single out Islam.
The sultan habitually murdered potential rivals, and Montaigne cited this example of cruelty to condemn capital punishment in both Turkey and France. The Amorous Turk, so prevalent elsewhere, did not interest Montaigne, who was one of a gradually growing number of authors who explored human nature in a wider-than-European context. His comments were as accurate as the sources from which he drew them, and he contributed to the relatively new way Islam was presented in the West. This illustration of the beheading of John the Baptist from the Gospel of Mark 6: Eventually this Vatican-controlled press was moved from Rome to Florence; later Napoleon ordered it moved to Paris to print propaganda edicts for his Egyptian expedition.
Literary Works Western literary works of the Middle Ages depicted Islam in a manner that differed little from what the theologians wrote, except they were more attuned the prophet as antichrist early times to 49 to popular audiences. Such works both provided lively entertainment and reinforced an uncomplicated doctrinal lesson—heretics and idolaters come to a bad end, not so faithful Christians.
Cruel potentates dressed in rich silks and living in jewelbedecked palaces sent scimitar-wielding champions into battle, and always, despite the intensity of battle, the Christian won, by either killing or converting the Saracen. Writers and entertainers wanted to tell stories that would attract listeners, the more fanciful the account the better. The Christlike Frankish knight Roland was aided by the Angel Gabriel in defeating pagan Muslims, whose statue of their god Muhammad was thrown into a ditch where pigs and dogs destroyed it.
Roland laid down his life for his cause early in the drama, and after a prolonged battle, victory went to the Frankish hero-king, Charlemagne. This good-against-evil canticle became a skillfully employed propaganda piece during the Crusades. Elsewhere, Muslims appeared in popular drama as carnival characters and the Prophet as a villain. In such works Saracens were depicted as pagans who worshiped Mahumet, Apollin, and Tervagant, the moon goddess.
Tervagant was often portrayed as a shrewish, overbearing Muslim comic character, providing ready laughs, and pagan Muslims were stock characters in the York and Chester mystery plays as well. What gradually emerged by the later thirteenth century were prospects of a less hostile relationship with Muslims voiced by writers like Wolfram von Eschenbach —? Eventually he appeared as a mysterious knight in Europe in search of his father and, without knowing it, battled his half-brother Parzival in mortal combat; this was an often-employed literary form for the Christian—Muslim confrontation.
Their son was Prester [Presbyter] John, who became the legendary just ruler of a mysterious kingdom hidden somewhere in distant Muslim lands. In Willehalm, a later long epic poem by the same author, Willehalm and his wife Gyburc, another beautiful convert from Islam, took issue with popular European views of the Crusades. Her plea for tolerance and humanity transcended religious differences and represented a remarkable early statement at variance with the unequivocal anti-Muslim language of the Crusades.
The stage was set for the Christian to win, and the defeated Muslim to convert. The religions were not equal in combat, nor were the warriors. Chaucer was expertly conversant with Arabic science, then making its way into England, and with astronomy and astrology; in he began a treatise on the astrolabe that displayed knowledge of Arabic sources, possibly gained during his travels to Spain.
He also knew as much about Islamic beliefs as anyone of his time. Her father consented, but only if the sultan would convert to Christianity. In many stories, the exchange might have ended there, but for the sultan the agonizing choice presented no problem—he feigned conversion to gain a wife and a lucrative trading relationship. Then the trouble started. She told her followers: But I make one vow to almighty God— 52 the sum of all heresies Sooner the life shall be torn from my breast Than from my heart the faith of Mahomet!
Constance was placed in a small rudderless boat to travel the seas in exile until she reached Britain three years later.
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Chaucer deftly made the Muslim— Christian encounter a negative one. His Syria was an uncivilized, barbarous place, peopled by treacherous, deceitful rulers who belonged to a false religion. Her marriage to a weak but well-situated King Alla successfully produced a male offspring who would become a Christian ruler of the nations. Langland also repeated a stock story about Muhammad—that he was once a Roman cardinal, a successful preacher to the Saracens, whom he converted in large numbers. The other cardinals promised Muhammad he would be the next pope, but they elected someone else instead, so the angry Muhammad left to found his own heretical religion.
Marlowe could have drawn on the nearly one hundred versions of the Tamburlaine story circulating in England. Of Mahomet he said: Well soldiers, Mahomet remains in hell. Muhammad was relegated to the dreaded Eighth Circle, a place reserved for sowers of scandal and schismatics. The great fortress of Acre had fallen in , and with it the neighboring Frankish possessions of Tyre, Sidon, and Beruit, among others.
By the early sixteenth century, the intellectual weapons forged in earlier centuries had become the tools monks and bards employed to describe this strange, intrusive force that threatened Europe. And the attacks were similar to those used against Jews, heretics, Tartars, and pagans—most indistinguishable from one another. Behind this effort was a primarily domestic intent, the desire of European popes and kings to keep local populations religiously and politically in place.
The steady presence of Islam, especially in the Mediterranean and in the Balkans during these centuries, posed a conundrum for Western Christians. Yet religiously, it remained a subject of constant attacks as heresy, a schism, and a deformed version of Christianity. Still, it remained a thriving presence, disputing Christianity on its central doctrines and offering a clear but demanding morality and prayer life to its adherents.
Across the centuries, there were subtle changes in the contours of Western imagery about Islam. By the early sixteenth century, several Western leaders, including those in commerce, statecraft, and religion, seemed aware of an expanding world whose geography, peoples, beliefs, and commercial possibilities were vastly different from those of earlier times. Soon there would emerge suggestions that Islam might be an understandable religion separate from Christianity, that its founder might not be totally depraved, and that the response to it should be something other than total warfare.
Like it or not, Islam was here to stay. The Ottoman Empire gradually receded in military importance, and Islam ceased to be a direct threat to continental Europe. Military confrontation turned into a diplomatic chess game, an attempt to balance shifting Ottoman-European alliances—a deft game at which the Turks were adroit players. Meanwhile, the Catholic religion had lost much of its political hold in a changing Europe, where the Holy Roman Empire gave way to new nation-states and emerging Protestantism. A subtle shift in spiritual geography took place in these centuries, matching the changing political landscape.
Western interest in the Middle East lost much of its earlier religious hostility. A handful of isolated translators of Arabic manuscripts in scattered continental and European universities produced works in European languages, many of them isolated documents from a longdistant past. And among playwrights and musicians, Islam was the frequently employed exotic setting for tragedy or comedy.
And, necessarily, an object: Most participants understandably employed a Christian perspective, but still the comparative study of other religions was launched. Pierre Bayle — , at different times either a Protestant or a Catholic, was a leading voice for such tolerance. A state would be strengthened by extending tolerance to all religions within its borders, Bayle believed.
The emergence of new nation-states among the monarchies of France and England caused political theorists to view Islam with the curiosity of early political reformers, suggesting new ideas for governance in Europe under the guise of reporting on the habits of Turks, Persians, or Moors, as has been said, while avoiding the scrutiny of censors. But change in attitudes toward Islam came slowly.
Prisoners were buried waist-deep in the earth and were the targets of Muslim bowmen. Knolle, like earlier Western writers, called Islam the work of Satan and Muhammad a false prophet. But—here is the difference—Knolle also acknowledged Turkish determination, courage, and frugality. His twelvehundred-page work, written over twelve years, was a harbinger of other accounts that gradually found positive information to share about Muslims, until then considered mortal enemies.
The youthful Murad assumed the Ottoman throne in , had his Grand Vizer beheaded, three brothers killed, and numerous political and military opponents strangled or slaughtered. Machiavelli separated the study of politics from theology and described how political societies actually functioned. Machiavelli also included brief analytical comments about Turkish authoritarian government among other types of government modeled in chapters 4 and Machiavelli gave few details about Turkish politics, and his brief remarks about the sultan could have applied to numerous other authoritarian leaders as well.
At the same time, he laid out the rudiments of looking at history not as a branch of religion but rather as a humanistic discipline in its own right. France, both by nature and geography, had a special capacity for governance, he believed. All of the traditional ingredients constituting the Orient were there—wise rulers, proverbspouting elders, amorous exploits, tales of the seraglio, and brutal tyrants and their powerful armies. Such works provided French audiences with an elaborate and contradictory picture of Middle Eastern life and customs.
These works recognized that what had been lumped together as Saracens were numerous peoples, including Turks, Persians, Arabs, Egyptians, and Moors. Geographic boundaries were blurred, but such accounts provided increasingly rich detail about geography and life in various places. But once the dross was 60 the sum of all heresies screened out, a considerable body of accurate information on Islam and the people of the Middle East emerged. Increasingly, French travel writers were complimentary toward the Muslim lands they visited.
There were problems, though; France had active alliances with the Ottoman Empire and was engaged in warfare with its Christian Spanish neighbor. There remained the question of how Christian France, daughter of the church, could enter into an active alliance with the Turks. Moreover, he said, Christians were allowed to practice their religion freely in Turkey, and although the Ottoman Empire occupied the Christian holy places, pilgrims were allowed to visit them each year.
The novel, on which her author-brother George may have collaborated, was a Turkish-Christian cliff-hanger. Ibrahim, a Christian prince, was named a pasha at the court of Sultan Soliman in Constantinople. Ibrahim hoped to marry Isabelle Grimaldi, like him from Monaco. The long work ended surprisingly: And when the plot faltered, as it did periodically, the author resorted to elaborate descriptions of ceremonies, the palace, and the seraglio. Next, Sultan Soliman arrived, resplendent in elaborate jewel-bedecked cloak and turban, riding a horse whose harness was covered with emeralds and rubies.
Meanwhile, frenzied dervishes danced, and the extravaganza ended with a mock battle between Persians and Turks, which the latter won handily. Shah-Sephi was equated with Louis XV, vizars were cabinet ministers, and fakirs and imams were Catholic clergy in Oriental dress. It is all very well to say that the toleration of several creeds in a state is contrary to the interests of the sovereign.
Though all the sects in the world were gathered under his dominion, it would not do him any harm; for there is not a single one of them in which the duties of obedience and submission are not ordained and preached. I acknowledge that history is full of religious wars; but it is an indisputable fact that these wars have not been produced by the multiplicity of religions, but rather by the intolerance of the dominant creed.
Turkey was the model of the latter. Writing in the same period as Montesquieu, Voltaire — had the same purpose as Montesquieu in his scattered writings about Islam: The play was produced in Paris in , but Catholic critics sought to have it banned. In one scene, the Prophet surveyed world history.
Persia was in a weakened state, India in slavery, Egypt in disorder. Now was the time to lead the Arab world to victory. See who Mahomet is. We are alone; now listen: I am ambitious; all men are, we cannot doubt; But never has a king, a pontiff, a chieftain or a citizen, Conceived a project as great as mine. The time of Araby has come at last. This generous people, too long known, Has let its glory be entombed within its deserts; Now the days marked out for victory are at hand.
Do not reproach me with deceiving my native land; I am destroying its weakness and its idolatry. Beneath one king, beneath one God, I come to reunite it, And to make it renowned it must be made to serve. The Prophet remained a driven fanatic, but Islam as a religious system demonstrated a tolerance and adaptability missing in its earlier years. Voltaire had carefully calculated praise for Muhammad—his eloquence, air of authority, and knowledge of his people.
He compared Koranic passages of soaring literary and spiritual beauty with those containing contradictions and absurdities, and concluded that Muhammad was an imposter. Muhammad was both an impressive leader and a self-deceived zealot. Candide and companions, their travels and adventures over now, settled nearby where they worked the soil and snacked on 64 the sum of all heresies preserved fruits and pistachio nuts. Such comments as Voltaire made about Islam, despite their negative aspects, by mid-eighteenth century represented a considerable advance over what had gone before. Translations of the Koran and a More Detailed Study of Islam It was during this time that a more detailed study of Islam began in earnest, primarily through the study of languages.
He was also busily adding manuscripts and coins to his growing collection, although he never visited the Orient and knew none of its languages. Widespread prejudice against Islam and Arabic existed as well. Bedwell studied Semitic languages, with a special interest in Arabic, at Cambridge in the s, even though it was not formally taught. He gained the support of Lancelot Andrewes, then a fellow of Pembroke Hall, who both included Arabic among the many languages he knew and promoted its study as a way of learning more about the early church.
Andrewes, later bishop of Chichester, Ely, and Winchester, found Bedwell various clerical positions, where the latter pursued his multiple interests in mathematics, logic, and languages. Bedwell made one trip abroad, to Holland in The other type set was in Rome, used by the Vatican to publish parts of the Bible for missionaries to distribute in the Middle East.
Much of his life was spent meticulously preparing a nine-volume Arabic dictionary that never appeared in print during his lifetime, and by the time of his death was obsolete. From to Pococke lived in Constantinople, where he was chaplain to the English ambassador, and continued his language studies and manuscript collecting. It represented a compilation of such impressions of Islamic history and religion as Pococke could assemble. The author also published a translation of an Anglican catechism in and a shortened version of the Book of Common Prayer in At that time medical students were nominally required to study Arabic because of the Arabic contribution to science.
After his death, the Bodleian Library acquired his manuscript collection of works in Arabic, Hebrew, and other languages. Pococke treated Arabic as a dead language and Islam as ancient history, but he also translated a life of the Prophet from Arabic into English. Collections of documents in Arabic and Persian were gathered in Oxford and Cambridge, and the number of language students grew modestly. Several dictionaries and grammars also appeared in Europe and England, and in a massive Turkish dictionary was published in Austria.
Fluent in Turkish, Arabic, and Farsi, he later became the French ambassador to the sultan and compiled an early Turkish grammar in He completed a translation of the Koran in that was soon translated into English, Dutch, German, and Russian. Ross wrote a preface to the Koran attacking the Puritans, whom he said were already heretics—so how could publishing the Koran corrupt them further?
Then he added lurid stories about Muhammad, including a report that Muhammad wore a turban because of a misshapen head. This translation was to be by George Sale ca. His version lasted until the Rodwell translation of , and was reproduced and in wide circulation as late as The French diplomat-linguist also published a Turkish grammar. His freedom from religious prejudice in which respect he compares favorably with many of his nineteenthand twentieth-century successors.
But the complicated mix of seventeenth-century religious thought was not black and white. Others, handy at number symbolism, believed that the Jews would defeat the Romans in , then the Turks in the dates were calculated from the Bible. Protestants and Jews would then form an alliance against pope and sultan, for which the Jews would be rewarded with a return to Palestine, after which they would convert to Christianity.
Such English expectations were chimerical. Jews had been badly persecuted by Christians, and the likelihood of their jumping at the opportunity for a military alliance with their oppressors was nil. The English promoters of revolt, often called Restorationists, laced their political arguments with biblical quotations and they believed they had found a leader in Sabbatai Sevi — , Jewish leader of a messianic cult.
He would complete the conquest in the favorable year , the number of the Prophet Muhammad as Antichrist as calculated from the Book of Revelation. His followers denounced him, or said he was merely trying to understand Islam, or had gone to heaven. In any case, the British hope of uniting Muslims, Jews, and Christians in one empire was a spectacular failure.
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British divines regrouped in its aftermath. Meanwhile, Jews and Muslims remained as outcasts. Among writers on religion, attacks on Islam remained intense during most of the seventeenth century. Isaac Barrow, a preacher whose vituperative comments were considered authentic because he had spent a year in Constantinople, wrote a widely circulated sermon ca. Socially awkward, his energies were concentrated on a large family and poor parish. Nevertheless, they provided skeletal information about the life of the Prophet and the Koran, which polemicists eagerly used against both Islam and religious opponents in Europe.
This time it was the Unitarians, small in numbers, who were involved in debate against the much larger, established Church of England. The Anglican counterargument was to link Unitarians with Islam and then seek to discredit the latter. Prideaux was dean of Norwich Cathedral and had studied Hebrew at Oxford, but had no interest in original scholarship. Prideaux laid bare the errors of Islam as he saw them, then linked them to Unitarians and Deists. This work did not appear in print form, however, until , when a group of Turkish and Indian Muslims were responsible for its London publication.
Stubbe went further, praising Muslims for their religious devotion and military skills, and suggesting that Islamic polygamy was no less shocking than the marriage customs of the biblical patriarchs. He also argued that both the Muslim and biblical interpretations of heaven were allegorical and symbolic. On the other side, Milton said that Muslim governance provided a desirable model for royalists who wanted a strongly centralized, unchallenged monarchy, and wished to eliminate sedition.
The over two hundred pages of chapters 50—52 of his magnum opus were a carefully drawn panorama of Arabic geography, history, and religion. According to the tradition of his companions, Mohammed was distinguished by the beauty of his person, an outward gift which is seldom despised, except by those to whom it has been refused. Before he spoke, the orator engaged on his side the affections of a public or 72 the sum of all heresies private audience.
His memory was capacious and retentive; his wit easy and social; his imagination sublime; his judgment clear, rapid, and decisive. Representative of an emerging, ambivalent view of Islam was Joseph White ca. He is best remembered for his Bampton lectures on Islam and Christianity, which Gibbon acknowledged in his own writings on Islam. Emblematic of the newly emerging interest in life abroad were the letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu — , who accompanied her husband, the British ambassador to Istanbul from to He returned to England and political obscurity.
Gibbon and Voltaire, among others, praised them. The wife of the British ambassador to the Sublime Porte, she visited frequently with leading women in Istanbul. I should be very well pleased with reading the Alcoran which. I have since heard impartial Christians speak of it in the same manner. As for the Prophet, he was courteous toward women: The Zeidi, Kadari, Jabari, etc. But the most prevailing opinion, if you search into the secret of the effendis, is plain Deism, but this is kept from the people, who are amused with a thousand different notions according to the different interests of their preachers.
Growing trade with the Middle East also resulted in the spread of coffee to England and to the gradual emergence of a coffee culture there and on the continent. By the late seventeenth century, coffeehouses were numerous in London. Coffeehouses became popular in eighteenth-century England. The Barbary Pirates As Mediterranean maritime commerce increased, North African navies or pirates captured great numbers of English and other European sailors. In , a Turkish pirate ship was captured in the Thames estuary; others preyed as far north as Ireland and Iceland, raiding coastal communities for crops and plunder—and for men, women, and children, who were taken as slaves.
But if thousands of Britons remained in Muslim lands and some converted to Islam, hundreds also returned to England, either ransomed or freely released. One result of their large number was that it became less easy for English villagers to condemn Muslims outright, especially if someone from your own village had converted to Islam and then returned home. One such person was Joseph Pitts, an English sailor captured by Algerian pirates, who was forced to convert under torture, made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and then returned to England.
He candidly said that living and working conditions were better in Algiers than in England, and much was admirable about Muslim devotional life. Although villagers were happy to see neighbors and kinsmen return, the returnees represented a problem for the church. Clerics had little sympathy for the hardships of captivity and the hard choices of conversion or death faced by these people, who were often regarded as traitors to their country and supporters of a satanic religion. Clergy wanted to make sure returnees denounced their apostasy, but no litmus 78 the sum of all heresies test existed to determine the religious state of such people.
One preacher urged clandestine checks to see if the men in question had actually been circumcised. Archbishop Laud, not remembered for his pastoral compassion, devised a three-Sunday ceremony of repentance. Turks or Moors as fearful or comic characters and menacing Barbary pirates became staples on the English stage. After them [came] Ward on an Asse, in his Christian habite, bareheaded. The two Knights, with low reuerence [reverence], ascend, whisper the Muffty in the eare, draw their swords, and pull him off the Asse. He layd on his belly, the Tables by two inferior priests offered him, he lifts his hand up, subscribes, is brought to his seat by the Muffty, who puts on his Turban and Roab, girds his sword.
Hee spurnes at him, and throws away the Cuppe, is mounted on an Asse. He made few references to Barbary, and his plays contained neither mosques nor minarets, or references to the Koran, or any discussion of Islamic beliefs. The work contributed to but did not cause the growing interest in the Orient. Some of the tales were traceable to India, many were of Persian origin, and others came from Baghdad and Cairo. Most of the stories were long circulated and common to both Islamic and Mediterranean cultures.
He also translated the Mille et une nuits into French, completing some stories, and adding others of his invention. The author toned down violent and picaresque scenes and eliminated obscene passages in the tales; a century later Richard Burton put the sexually explicit material back in and added some of his own. One estimate is that almost seven hundred romances written in an Oriental manner were published in eighteenth-century France. There is little about Islamic religion in the work, but these suspenseful tales, adventure stories, and magical fables with their giants, genies, and magic lamps earned an enduring place in Western culture.
Joseph Addison published several such tales in the Spectator , and Oliver Goldsmith wrote Montesquieu-type letters in The Citizen of the World Parenthetically, neither the Aladdin tale nor the popular Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves was part of the original Nights. As such, Islam in Spanish and German literature resembled the Islam of English authors, an exotic subject laced with combats which the Europeans always won. The second section, published in , came after Jews and Muslims had been expelled from once-tolerant Spain, giving poignancy to the book that supposedly was written by a Moorish author.
Several thousand captive slaves lived there, some in miserable conditions, but often no more so than if they had been on English ships or in English jails. The couple and some other Christians escaped by boat from Algiers, but were seized by French privateers, who took everything but their clothes. Hajji Murad was later released by his abductors, and he denounced his treacherous daughter. Cursed be the hour when I begot you!
Catalog Record: The sum of all heresies : the image of Islam | Hathi Trust Digital Library
Cursed the luxury and indulgence in which I reared you! Cervantes wrote at the fault line between two ages; an older time of tolerance and chivalry had yielded to a newer, more violent age. Jews and Moors were gone now from Spain, brutally expelled by the Spanish Catholic rulers or forcibly converted to Christianity, despite a guarantee of religious tolerance promulgated in by Ferdinand and Isabella. First there was the anonymous translator of the Arabic book, a Muslim record, hidden now in a blatantly Christian setting.
Few German travelers visited the Orient; they never approached the numbers sent from France or England. Sanskrit, an Indian language, was taught at the University of Bonn in , other chairs were established elsewhere, and a productive school of German Indology was in place by the mid-nineteenth century. Immanuel Kant — believed that humanity was divided into four races. And because they do not know this, they are not themselves free.
They only know that One is free; but for this very reason, such freedom is mere arbitrariness, savagery, and brutal passion, or a milder and tamer version of this which is itself only an accident of nature, and equally arbitrary. This One is therefore merely a despot, not a free man and a human being.
In addition to a few allusions here and there, Islam ended up with three pages in the Philosophy of History, in a section on the Germanic world chapter 2, part 4. Acknowledging early Islamic contributions to science, philosophy, and poetry, Hegel was not negative in his appraisal of the Muslim world but he was a philosopher, not a historian, and his system was long under construction before he encountered Islam, about which he had only spotty information.
The play was set in Jerusalem about during the Crusades, where a Christian monk gave Nathan, a wealthy Jewish merchant an infant girl, Rachel Recha , to raise. Nathan, whose own wife and seven sons had been killed by the Knights of the Cross, raised the child to be virtuous without following any particular religion. The plot thickened when the young knight learned that Rachel was born a Christian.
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He appealed to the pompous patriarch of Jerusalem, who would have nothing to do with him. The question was an obvious trap; if Nathan answered Judaism, the Muslim ruler would be offended; if he said Islam, he might be required to convert. As he neared death, the owner had a jeweler make two duplicate rings, so that each son received one.
He said to the templar: Would you remain with me? Here at my side? In cloak Of white, in Moslem robe; in turban, or In Christian cowl; just as you will. I never have required the selfsame bark To grow on every tree. Mahomet would open with the Prophet singing a hymn alone in the desert under the stars.
The Prophet then converted to Islam, followed by his family and friends. In later acts Muhammad defeated his enemies but increasingly engaged in cunning to achieve his goals. Muslim—Christian encounters took the form of carefully staged crusader 88 the sum of all heresies combat in several lengthy musical works. One such story was Combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda by Claudio Monteverdi — , a one-act opera-oratorio. Its plot was extracted from Jerusalem Liberated, the Love of Tancredi and Clorinda by Torquato Tasso — , a long epic poem set in and the beginning of the Crusades.
The plot was simple: Turkish interludes were staples in ballets and operas, and several Ottoman sultans became opera characters, including Mohammed I and Suleiman I. Mozart made widespread use of Oriental motifs in his operas. One of the best-known such works was Les Indes galantes by JeanPhilippe Rameau — , which played for over three hundred performances following its opening. The magnanimous Osman freed the couple: Go to your boats, My orders have been given.
He has the right to claim the most perfect happiness. Tolerance and understanding were considerably advanced in such works beyond where they had been a few centuries earlier. The exotic East was by now solidly established as an imaginary realm, a mental setting to be drawn on as needed as a place of escape, a theme that would become important during the nineteenth century, when distinctive escapist art, literature, and music came into its own.
But there was also a second, different Orient emerging, a place with real geographical features, archeological ruins, growing commerce with Europe, and a religion and cultures worth study on their own. New positives were added, old negatives were reinforced. Except for the missionaries, many of the writers were indifferent to religion. They were still used, but to them were added the works of a generation of new writers who found more favorable aspects of Islam to write about. On balance, the old negatives about Islam remained, but to them were added a wealth of new information, more detailed and tolerant in perspective, plus a steady outpouring of new 92 the sum of all heresies details about languages, cultures, and societies than had ever been previously available.
He listened intently as scholars from the alAzhar expounded the Koran, and presided over Egyptian religious festivals.
Pragmatically religious when he wanted to be, he called himself a Muslim while in Egypt, a Catholic in France, and a freethinker at the Institute in Paris. Megalomaniac that he was, Napoleon believed he could forcibly amalgamate East and West. Several artists were among their ranks, and from this assemblage a school of modern Egyptology was born.
The experts spent three years preparing detailed observations, leaving lasting results in linguistics, archaeology, and cartography. Napoleon arrived in Alexandria on July 2, , and distributed a carefully written proclamation in Arabic, Turkish, and French. They shall prosper in fortune and rank. Napoleon thought about it and replied that he and the French soldiers were circumcised and drank wine, both prohibited in Islamic 94 the sum of all heresies tradition, so they could not become Muslims. Napoleon, turned theologian for a moment, said it would make no sense to join a new religion and already be condemned to hell.
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